This thesis is a study on a particular design that appears on Chinese export porcelain produced in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries of the Ming and Qing dynasties. The Chinese term bogu is often translated as ‘hundred antiques’ and names a...
This thesis is a study on a particular design that appears on Chinese export porcelain produced in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries of the Ming and Qing dynasties. The Chinese term bogu is often translated as ‘hundred antiques’ and names a design that depicts the scholarly avocation of appreciating and akdncherishing ancient bronze objects. The bogu design portrays bronze vessels such as the gu (觚), zun (尊), ding (鼎), ping (甁), jue (爵), and hu (壺) or other ancient objects as the central component supplemented by auspicious subjects such as scholar's accoutrements (文房淸玩) and the eight treasures (八寶) depending on the periodical changes in the design scheme. Thus, Chinese ceramics decorated with this design are termed bogu ceramics. In this thesis, bogu ceramics refer to the Chinese wares produced for European trade that are both a reflection and visual representation of this aspect of scholarly interest once prevalent in Ming and Qing society. An examination of the origin and circumstances surrounding the proliferation of the ‘hundred antiques’ design is the basis of this thesis which endeavors to diagnose the significance of bogu ceramics as a genre of Chinese export ware.
The investigation into the conditions leading up to the visual representation of the bogu design starts with the Northern Song dynasty. In historical records, there are various lexical applications of the term bogu including gushi (古事, past affairs) and guxue (古學, ancient studies) among others. However, the use of this term in its relevance to design is strictly specific to ancient objects as is evident in the Northern Song text Xuanhe bogutu (Illustrated Catalogue of Antique Treasures from the Xuanhe Reign). Simultaneous to the publication of Xuanhe bogutu, the existence of a royal predilection for ancient objects combined with the predominance of Epigraphy-the study and interpretation of inscriptions on artifacts-resulted in the new vogue for bogu among the literary nobles. Its popularity persisted through the Song dynasty and was only amplified in the Ming dynasty. By the late Ming period, development of the commodity economy prompted the widespread dissemination of bogu from its scholarly niche to other corners of society including the merchant class. Thus in the Qing dynasty, the penchant for bogu became the social and economic foundation of all strata from the imperial class to the working commoners. The pervasiveness of the taste for bogu in the Ming and Qing dynasties is also a phenomenon further evidenced by the historical texts of the period.
Within these social circumstances wherein bogu was considered the visual representation of the scholarly aesthetic, the origin of the design can be traced to the painting Picture of the New Year (歲朝圖), an example of the bogu huahui (博古花卉圖, bogu with flowers) genre. It is an amalgam of scholarly taste and auspicious significance expressed through the genre’s compulsory depiction of flowers in a vase and the enjoyment of scholars’ accoutrements. The same components are considered to be the origins of the bogu design as applied to ceramics, which would have developed in an identical manner to be used as decorative elements in not only ceramics but in various mediums such as painting, clothing and ornament, architecture, etc. The bogu design was widely appreciated by all social groups in the Qing dynasty but especially employed in diverse forms by the plebeian class until the nineteenth century. It follows that the bogu design is unique and specific in its dual connotation of the qualities ya (雅, elegant) and su (俗, custom).
As evidenced by its growing status as the social and economic foundation of the Ming and Qing dynasties, the taste for bogu was also enjoyed by non-scholars. This is directly connected to the changes in the design of the bogu ceramics. For the purposes of determining the characteristics unique to the bogu ceramics of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the individual components of the design are first categorized as iconography representing ancient objects, munbang cheongwan (文房淸玩, well-equipped scholar’s study), or auspicious signs according to subject matter. Based on the combination of these elements and their overall composition, the bogu designs are then separated into four categories (I, II, III, IV). Through an examination of each group’s production period and style, it was possible to ascertain the characteristics of the bogu ceramics produced in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
The bogu ceramics of the Ming and Qing dynasties were exported to, circulated within, and consumed in Europe through the ceramic trade of the Dutch and British East India Companies. The popularity of the bogu design in Europe can be examined from two perspectives. First, there is a definite affinity between the bogu design and European still life paintings in the elements depicted and the arrangement of these elements. It is an easy comparison of the parallels between the development of flower still life paintings or Pronkstilleven and the changes observed in the bogu design. Moreover, the bogu design and still life genre resemble one another in that each design carries symbolic meaning. Thus, one explanation for why the bogu design was able to appeal to a foreign aesthetic is the preexisting familiarity with the genre of still life painting in Europe. The second perspective builds on the concept of Chinoiserie. From this standpoint, the bogu design was a vehicle of inspiration for the European consumer who wished to express his or her appreciation for the Chinese tradition in the form of various decorative elements such as paintings, Coromandel, Lacquer paintings and other ornamental crafts.
Chinese export porcelain of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, specifically the bogu ceramics of the Ming and Qing dynasties, exist in diverse styles. These include Blue and White porcelain, colored porcelain, wucai, fencai, etc. that are then subdivided into categories such as Kraak porcelain, transition period, Kangxi style, Powder Blue, Famille noire, Chinese Imari and Rococo. This systematic classification of stylistic characteristics revealed the periodical changes in the appearance of the design as seen in the bogu ceramics produced for European export. To briefly outline these changes, bogu ceramics exported to Europe in 1640-1680 were mainly Kraak and transition period style. In 1680-1730, the main exports were produced in more diverse styles than the former period. During 1730-1750, the bogu design was reproduced in the eighteenth century Rococo style of Europe. Overall, these transformations demonstrate how bogu ceramics were modified in form and style to meet the demands of their European consumers.
At the other end of the spectrum, Chinese bogu ceramics exported to Europe also had an effect on the ceramic production of its destination. The European reproduction of bogu ceramics took form in two ways. The first is a faithful imitation that strived to emulate the exact shape, design, and style of the original. The second is a departure from the original as it incorporated elements of European taste.
In the latter version of the bogu ceramics, some of the Chinese subjects are substituted with European objects or combined with European decoration. It was also common for Chinese images new to the European aesthetic to be projected onto the original bogu design which was inevitably an effect of Chinoiserie. For example, the transformation of Meissen porcelain through the influence of Chinoiserie in its depiction of East Asian figures in the design scheme reflects the new direction of the reinterpreted bogu design in European ceramics. Likewise, the similarities shared between bogu ceramics and European still life painting were enough to garner acceptance of the Chinese genre. However, the deciding factor was the influence of Chinoiserie which made the constituents of the bogu design familiar yet exotic, providing a template that could be modified to suit the aesthetic sensibilities of the European consumer.
The bogu ceramics produced in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries of the Ming and Qing dynasties are representative examples of Chinese export porcelain that satisfied European taste and consumption. More importantly, it must be noted that the European version of bogu ceramics was not merely an imitation but rather a reinterpretation of a Chinese tradition in the aesthetic language of European taste. This indicates that the significance of bogu ceramics lies in its status as export porcelain for European trade rather than simply a genre of Chinese ceramics.