中國佛敎化 과정에서 본 道家와의 관계연구 = Studies on Buddhism's relation to philosophical Taoism during its development in China

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

In this thesis, the close relation between Buddhism and philosophical Taoism(Daojia, 道家) have been discussed by looking into the transitional characteristics of Chinese Buddhism during the period that stretched from the entry of Buddhism to the completion of its localized transformation.
The first recognizable influence of philosophical Taoism can be traced back to the Later Han Dynasty(後漢) when the Huang-Lao movement(黃老學) offered a basis for Buddha's deification. Buddha began to be worshiped as a god by his followers who bowed and made offerings to seek fortunes. As a consequence, Buddhism could be easily accepted as one of religions among Chinese people. In the Former Han Dynasty, the Huang-Lao movement had developed as a political philosophy, but in the Later Han, it transformed itself into a religious philosophy by accepting the thought of immortal hermit with supernatural powers. This change provided a theoretical base for the deification of the Yellow Emperor, Huang-ti and Lao-tzu as well as the establishment of early religious Taoism(Daojiao, 道敎) which sought to prolong life and achieve immortality.
The movement, also, acted as one of the important factors that affected the introduction form and timing of Buddhism. To propagate Buddhist doctrines, the sutras should be translated into Chinese in an easily understandable and acceptable way. For this end, Taoist terms were borrowed and certain sutras were selected to satisfy Chinese contemporary interest; that is, ones related with life prolongment and immortality were translated during that time. These Taoism-related translations enabled the Chinese who lived in Han Dynasty to accept Buddha as one of their gods and Buddhism as one of their religions.
Buddhism, however, had not been able to spread widely in China due to strong, traditional Confucian culture and Sino-centralism. It was Neo-Taoism in the Wei-tsin period that provided such an opportunity for Buddhism to be disseminated rapidly by drawing attention with its 'domesticated interpretation(格義)'. Neo-Taoism was a metaphysical ontology that studied the source of all creation. It emphasized the 'non-being(無)' in the thought of Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu as the basic substance -- the source of all creation, increasing the depth of its ontology and cosmology to discuss the true nature of the universe. This ontological thought centered on 'non-being' resonated well with the notion of Buddhist emptiness(空), thus making it easy for Buddhism to explain itself and attract attention from the Chinese society. This is because like non-being, emptiness has metaphysical characteristics and is the ultimate noumenon(true nature) in the sarvadharma. This interpretation prevailed in the Wei-tsin period and was clearly seen in the six theories and seven schools, especially from three theories(卽色義, 心無義, and 本無義).
Chinese local interpretation of Buddhism was, yet, far from perfection and its fallacy should be corrected to understand the true Buddhist teachings. The correction was made later in the Southern and Northern Dynasties by the Kumārajīva's translations of the four famous śāstras--the Mādhyamika-śāstra(中論), the Śata-śāstra(百論), the Dvādaśanikāya(-mukha)-śāstra(十二門論), and the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra(大智度論). The doctrine on the thought of emptiness was explained accurately by his translations, thus making the fallacy disappear naturally. However, the importance of this fallacy should not be overlooked because it reveals Chinese Buddhism was closely related with Neo-Taoism. Even though only wisdom sutras were translated at that time, it was not 'Wisdom(般若)' but 'Emptiness(空)' that was mainly discussed under the influence of Neo-Taoism. The ontological thought of Neo-Taoists based on the thought of Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu had continuous effects on Buddhism throughout the Southern and Northern Dynasties and the Sui-Tang period.
In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, systematic translation and compilation works by Kumārajīva enabled the introduction of various Buddhist doctrines. Followers who read his works began to question themselves what was the essential thought expressed in each sutra and which of all the sutras was the closest to the essence. This questioning and pursuit led to the very concept of Zong(宗).
Zong means the pursuit of the basic meaning or essence of Buddhism and is a key element that characterizes Chinese Buddhism. This is because Chinese consciousness of Zong played an important role not only in the establishment of various schools developed theoretically based on the doctrinal classification, but in the foundation of diverse sects of the Sui and Tang period. The Zong-consciousness is indeed the 'pursuit of basic thought', which gives a hint as to where it originated from; the ontological thought of philosophical Taoism that sought for the true nature as the source of all creation. From the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Chinese people became an active thinker of Buddhism, not just a passive receiver of the foreign religion. This subjectivity is significant because their own way of thinking could not be immune to their popular traditional thought, Neo-Taoism and it was their choices made from their own thought system that had huge effects on the development of Buddhism on their soil.
As the concept of Zong had been deepened and the doctrinal classification completed, Chinese religious sects of Buddhism were established during the Sui-Tang period. Each sect had its own doctrinal system to differentiate itself from others. Under the assumption that Chinese traditional thought was reflected into the creation of those doctrinal systems, the well-known Tiantai and Huayan sects were looked into to substantiate the assumption. To unfold the Buddhist world of enlightenment, the former sect used the three dogmas(三諦) as a medium to achieve the insight into reality while the latter used the universal basis(理) to develop its doctrine of the realm of unimpeded interaction of noumenon and phenomenon or the realm of all beings. These doctrinal explanations of both the sects provided a clue to their origin. In philosophical Taoism, the logic of being and non-being was used to explain the ultimate reality of all creation and 'the universal basis' was termed as the source of all beings by combining 'the Unity' from the Daodejing ("Classic of the Way and Its Virtue") with 'the Great Absolute' from the I Ching ("Classic of Changes"). Once again, Taoism showed its association with Buddhism, especially with two of the highly developed, characteristic forms of Chinese Buddhism, the Tiantai and the Huayan sects.
The followings are to sum up the important points of this thesis. Buddhism was provided an golden opportunity by the Huang-Lao movement in the Later Han Dynasty to facilitate its propagation by deifying Buddha. This was possible because the movement had the characteristics of religious philosophy and already made their sages, Huang-ti and Lao-tzu, gods to be worshiped. Sutras were also selected in consideration of contemporary Chinese interest in Taoism and Taoist terms were adopted to unfold the Buddhist world. Through these efforts related to Taoism, Buddhism succeeded in building a nest in the society of China where a foreign religion or thought had been unable to penetrate.
As the Wei-tsin period arrived, Neo-Taoism prevailed among the intellectuals and Buddhism was quick to discuss its doctrine of emptiness from the viewpoint of Neo-Taoist ontology focused on non-being. This new form of Taoism offered not only a chance for full-fledged discussion of Buddhist teachings but also a basis for Buddhism to take deep root into the Chinese society by opening up the time of local interpretation of Indian sutras.
The prevalence of domesticated interpretation during the Wei-tsin period clearly indicates Chinese increasing interest in Buddhist doctrines. This rising appeal of Buddhism brought state support in the Southern and Northern Dynasties, enabling the translations of sutras by Kumārajīva and fueling more doctrinal studies in depth in various fields. There was, however, a historical event that Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou Dynasty tried to eradicate Buddhism against its gaining popularity. Ironically, this unsuccessful try together with profound buddhist studies helped the religion consolidate its bases in all walks of Chinese life and led the way to Buddhist prosperity in the Sui-Tang period. Along the way, the ontological thinking of Taoism deeply rooted in the mind of Chinese people was reflected, making Buddhism more localized and suitable for China. Such Taoist reflection was able to be found in the occurrence of Zong-consciousness and the explanation of the enlightened world by the Tiantai and the Huayan sects.
Based on the points mentioned above, this thesis has clarified that Buddhism in China had profound and unbreakable relations with traditional philosophical Taoism form the very beginning. In theory, Buddhism should have had a very hostile and destructive relation with Taoism because the former was a new foreign religion and the latter was a strongly rooted, traditional philosophy. In reality, however, Buddhism was able to develop its doctrines systematically in a more domesticated way by adopting and learning Taoist strong appealing points, terms and thoughts. Later, Buddhism corrected its fallacy from such borrowings and became the most popular religion of China in the Sui and Tang Dynasties. However, in spite of such success of Buddhism, what should be remembered is that it is the trace of philosophical Taoism in Chinese Buddhism that makes it so unique compared to the Buddhism of other nations.

목차 (Table of Contents)

• Ⅰ. 序論 = 1
• 1.연구목적 = 1
• 2.연구범위와 방법 = 5
• Ⅱ.불교전래기의 道家思想과 그 영향 = 8
• 1.漢代의 도가사상 = 8
• 1)前漢黃老學의 태동 = 9
• 2)後漢黃老學의 변화 = 11
• 3)老莊思想과 神仙思想의 융합 = 14
• 2.불교수용의 양태 = 22
• 1)祭祀祈福의 대상으로서의 佛陀 = 22
• 2)불교경전의 漢譯경향 = 25
• 3.小結 = 30
• Ⅲ.불교정착기의 道家思想과 그 영향 = 32
• 1.魏晋時代의 도가사상 =- 33
• 1)老莊의 本體論 = 33
• 2)玄學의 등장-'無'중심의 이론 = 41
• 2.불교의 格義的 접근 = 46
• 1)사회적 배경 = 46
• 2)다양한 한역경전의 소개 = 51
• 3)격의적 해석 = 52
• 3.小結 = 61
• Ⅳ.學派佛敎에 내재된 道家的 思惟 = 63
• 1.학파적 성격의 불교 = 63
• 1)鳩摩羅什 譯經의 영향 = 64
• 2)格義的 解釋의 도태 = 68
• 2.敎相判釋意識의 형성과 도가적 사유 = 71
• 1)교판의식의 발단－도가의 本體論的 思惟 = 71
• 2)宗觀念의 발생 = 74
• 3.小結 = 77
• Ⅴ.宗派佛敎에 용해된 道家的 思惟 = 79
• 1.종파적 성격의 불교 = 79
• 1)사회적 배경 = 79
• 2)宗觀念의 심화 = 82
• 3)敎相判釋論의 확립 = 84
• 2.天台·華嚴敎理內의 道家的 思惟 = 87
• 1)천태의 三諦와 도가적 사유 = 87
• 2)화엄의 理와 도가적 사유 = 93
• 3.小結 = 99
• Ⅵ.結論 = 101
• 參考文獻 = 104
• Abstract = 114