Compare and Contrast of legislation, Case Studies, and Guidelines to develop a Deep-sea Mining Environment Adaptive Management Framework to Protect Fiji’s Marine Environment.

국문 초록 (Abstract)

피지는 배타적 경제수역 내 북부 피지 분지의 해저 대규모 황화물(SMS) 매장지에 대한 심해 채굴을 탐사할 수 있는 라이센스를 부여했다.피지는 해양 생태계에 의존하는 어업, 관광 등 피지의 경제 활동을 보호하는 국제 정책에 부합하는 규정을 개발할 주권을 가지고 있다. 금, 은, 구리, 아연과 같은 DSM 귀중한 광물에 대한 수요는 연구 및 기술에 대한 관심을 발전시킬 수 있는 현대 기술에 의해 주도된다. 그러나 해양 생태계에 가장 미미한 영향을 미치기 위해서는 심해 채굴 중금속이 해양생태계에 미치는 독성 영향을 완전히 조사해야 한다. 심해 채굴 현장 주변의 해양 생태계는 압력 및 온도와 관련된 다양한 깊이의 수질, 빛, 소리 및 가스에 의존하는 해양 동식물로 구성된다. 심해 채굴 광미 또는 광산 폐기물의 배출은 해양 생태계에 해를 끼치고 심해 채굴의 독성 발자국이라고 할 수 있는 중금속 농도가 포함된 독성 플럼 및 폐수가 된다. 본 연구는 유해 중금속이 해양 생태계에 미치는 영향, 중금속 오염을 규제 및 관리하고 해양 환경을 보호하기 위한 환경 적응관리 체계(EAMF)를 개발하는 법안에 중점을 둔다. 이러한 평가는 유해 중금속(HMM)으로부터 해양환경을 보호하기 위한 합의에 도달하기 위해 정부 기관, 전문가, 대중 인식 및 협의를 통합할 수 있다. 따라서 EAMF 는 해양환경을 보호하기 위해 여러 환경영향 평가(EIA)를 관리하고 심해 채굴 단계를 모니터링해야 할 수도 있다. 주요 단어: 심해 채굴 광미(DSMT) / 유해 중금속류 / 해양환경 / 보호 / 제도 / 환경 적응관리 체계(EAMF)

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

Fiji has given out licenses to explore Deep-Sea Mining (DSM) for Seafloor Massive Sulphide (SMS) deposits in the Northern Fiji Basin, within Fiji’s Economical Exclusive Zone. Fiji has the sovereignty right to develop regulations aligning with international policies that will protect Fiji’s economic activities, such as Fisheries and Tourism, which depend on the Marine Eco-System (MES). The demand for these DSM valuable minerals such as Gold, Silver, Copper, and Zinc is driven by modern technology that may develop an interest in research and technology. However, DSM heavy metals' toxicity impact on the MES must be fully explored to achieve the most negligible effect on the Marine Ecosystem. The Marine Ecosystem around the Deep Sea Mining sites consists of Marine Flora and Fauna that depend on water quality, light, sound, and gases at different depths related to pressure and temperature. Any discharge of Deep-sea mining tailings or mine waste will become toxic plumes and waste water with concentration of heavy metals that will harm the Marine Ecosystem and could be refer as the toxic foot print of DSM. This study focuses on the impact of harmful heavy metals on the Marine Ecosystem, the legislation to govern and manage the pollution of heavy metals and develop an Environment Adaptive Management Frame work (EAMF) to protect the Marine Environment. These assessments may integrate Government agencies, expert, public awareness and consultation to come to agreement to protect the Marine environment from Harmful heavy Metals (HMMs). Therefore EAMF may have to manage multiple Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) and monitoring DSM stages to protect Marine Environment. Keywords: Deep-sea Mining Tailing (DSMT) / Harmful Heavy Metals / Marine Environment/ Protection/ Legislation/ Environment Adaptive Management Framework (EAMF)

목차 (Table of Contents)

• 1. Introduction 1
• 1.1 Fiji Deep-sea Mining (DSM) Overview 1
• 1.2 Deep-Sea Mining (DSM) Activity . 4
• 1.3 Deep-sea Mining Policies 6
• 1.4 Risk Impacts Assessments (RIA) 6
• 1.5 Objectives 8
• 2. Literature Review 9
• 2.1 Domestic Policies of Fiji . 9
• 2.1.1 The Mining Act, 1965 (MN 1965) . 11
• 2.1.2 The Continental Shelf Act, 1970 (COS 1970) 11
• 2.1.3 The International Seabed Mineral Management Act 2013
• (ISM). 12
• 2.1.4 The Maritime Transport Act, 2013. 13
• 2.1.5 The Environment Management Act, 2005 14
• 2.2. International Policies and Regional Organization 15
• 2.2.1 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
• (UNCLOS), 1982 15
• 2.2.2 The International Seabed Authority (ISA), 1994. 18
• 2.2.3 The London Protocol (LP) 1996 20
• 2.2.4 South Pacific Regional Organization and its Function . 21
• 2.3 Management of Deep-Sea Mining Waste (tailings) Disposal .. 24
• 2.3.1 General Impact of the Toxic Waste Discharge of Deep-Sea
• Mining Harmful Heavy Metals (HHMs) . 24
• 2.3.2 Vatukoula Goal Mining Toxic Waste Case Study 30
• 2.3.3 Portman Bay Toxic Deep-Sea Mining Concentrate with
• Harmful Heavy Metals (HHMs) 33
• 2.3.4 Waste Disposal Methods Island Cooper Mine, Canada 36
• 2.3.5 Preliminary Guideline management system to control Deep-
• sea Mining toxic plumes 37
• 3. Methodology 41
• 3.1 Conceptual Plan 41
• 3.2 Qualitative Analysis 43
• 3.3 Quantitative Analysis . 44
• 4. Discussion 45
• 4.1 Does Fiji have the capacity to prevent Marine Environment from
• Toxic DSMT? . 45
• 4.2 How HHMs pollutes the Marine Environment from Toxic DMST?
• 48
• 4.2.1 The natural state of the Marine Environment. 48
• 4.2.2 The Mining contribution to Harmful Heavy Metal in Marine
• Environment 49
• 4.2.3 Harmful Heavy Metals in organism and the effects on human
• health . 52
• 4.3 How to control toxic DSMT discharge from polluting the Marine
• Environment 54
• 4.3.1 Deep-sea Mining Waste Environment Adaptive Management
• Framework 54
• 4.3.2 Policy/ Agency recommendation . 57
• 4.3.3 Remediation Recommendation Harmful Heavy Metals
• (HMMs) 57
• viii
• 4.3.4 Environment Adaptive Management Framework (EAMF)
• Recommendation . 58
• 5. Conclusion 61
• Bibliography . 64
• Appendix 71