This study is on tombs of Koguryo, especially stone-filed tombs and mural painting tombs, and Sacrificial Rites.
Chapter Ⅱ is a basic step for a synthetic examination of existing reports on the royal big stone-filed tombs in the region of Jian and then to understand the royal big stone-filed tombs of Koguryo by the forms and chronology of the royal tombs. This is basic study for burial site and master of the Koguryo stone-filed tombs
Stone-filed tombs of Koguryo is consisted of four exterior forms (non-stylobate, fence, stylobate, stairway) and four interior forms (stone outer coffin, stone burial hole , burial hole and chamber, stone burial chamber). Thus the stone-filed tombs of Koguryo has developed by mixing of these forms. Comparing to these patterns of development in forms, we can find out that the royal big stone-filed tombs of Koguryo, which is over 30 meters tall, has only two exterior forms(fence style and stairway style). This means that development to stairway style stone-filed tombs, the mixture of fence style and stylobate style, had been rapid and the royal stone-filed tombs of Koguryo had been built in the form of fence style and stylobate style to be as tall as agreeable to the kingship.
The royal big stone-filed tombs of Koguryo in the region of Jian, in the aspect of form categorization, we can suppose that it had developed from the fence style tombs with stone burial hole or the fence style tombs with stone outer coffin to the stairway style tome with burial hole and chamber and finally to the stairway style tombs with stone burial chamber. The fence style tombs with stone burial hole or the fence style tombs with stone outer coffin seemed to have existed from the middle of second century to the first half of the third century and stairway style tome with burial hole and chamber seemed to have existed from the middle of third century to the first half of forth century. Among these, stairway style tombs with stone burial chamber had mainly existed from the middle of fourth century to the first half of fifth century and shows the most elaborated form of the royal stone-filed tombs of Koguryo. Thus the royal stone-filed tombs of Koguryo which appeared after the middle of second century and have their every side over 30 meters are related to the advent of a powerful kingship: this shows that the Koguryo already established the system of a powerful kingship in the middle of second century. In the middle of third century when the stairway style stone-filed tombs appeared, the Koguryo began to grow to claim its own cosmological conception in the forth century. With this development the royal stone-filed tombs of Koguryo symbolically shows the transition of kingship.
And the buried of Koguryo great stone-filled tomb were examined. Many of researches about buried people in Koguryo stone-filed tombs and locating of Koguryo kings' tombs have been preceded without general analysis on written records. The location of the Koguryo king’s tombs is recently discussed energetically. It is considered better to work based on historical records for the moment. Also, making a chronicle according to the location, size, excavated remains and style of the tomb to figure out approximate period of its establishment and tomb’s original location is crucial. I will point out few problems in other theories and verify historical facts precisely from Samguksagi, Samgukyusa, Japanese historical material, and inscriptions engraved into stones or metal to scrutinize the location of the Koguryo king’s tomb. Because the burial site of the Koguryo king’s tomb is kept on record in Samguk Sagi, if the location of tombs in other studies differ to a great extent from that of Samguk Sagi, that location might be wrong. Gukyang, Gogukwon and Gukgansang are found out to be indicating the same region, a certain plain area around Guknae Castle. Thus, instead of the original theories on river in Ji’an, Gukcheon can be located as Amnok River, Seocheon as Tongu river, Dongcheon as a small river in front of Taewanghyang, Jungcheon as a small river from Woo Mountain to south of Guknae Castle and Micheon as Maseonguha. This implies a number of tombs of Koguryo kings since King Shindae had existed at Woo Mountain tomb or near the Chilsung Mountain tomb group. Considering the development procedure of Koguryo stone-filed Tomb closely, these kings’ tombs could be located at following places: under mountain castle No. 36(late 2C) as the tomb of King Sindae ; Chilsung Mountain tomb No. 871(early 3C); Woo Mountain tomb No.2110(late 3C) as the tomb of King Jungcheon; Chilsung Mountain tomb No.0211 (late 3C) as the tomb of King Seocheon; Imgang Tomb (late 3C-mid 4C) as the tomb of King Bonsang; Seodae Tomb (early 4C) as the original burial site of King Micheon and Masungu tomb No.2100 (mid 4C) as the second burial site; Woo Mountain tomb No.0540 (late 4C) as the tomb of King Gogugwon; Cheonchu Tomb (late 4C) as the tomb of King Sosurim; Taewang Tomb (late 4C) as the tomb of King Gogugyang; Jangun Tomb (early 5C) as the tomb of Gwanggaeto the Great. But now I can't guess tombs of king Gogugchun and King Dongchun. Meanwhile, the burial site of the Koguryo nobility is found out to be located based on the land territory of family or one’s hometown. From now on, it is important to carry out investigations on this subject, locating the Koguryo king’s tomb, with great care and from various views. Particularly the way of selecting archaeological features which is regarded as the utmost reliable should be examined divided into two periods: when the tomb is originally established, and when it was restored.
Chapter Ⅲ is study on Koguryo mural painting. Until now the remaining number of Koguryo mural painting tombs was believed to be one hundred and seven. However according to research results, the total remaining number of mural painting tombs in China is thirty-eight : thirty-six in Jian area, one in Huanren area and another one in Musoon area. The number of mural painting tombs remaining in North Korea was believed to be seventy-six. And four more can be added to this number: K대msandong tomb in Sunchon area, double room tomb of Jinpari old mound in Pyongyang, Jinpari tomb number 7 and Dankun royal tomb. Accordingly currently confirmable Koguryo mural painting tombs amount to one hundred and eighteen including thirty eight remaining in China and eighty found in North Korea. Especially mural painting tombs with external formation as a stone-filed tomb and internal construction as a stone chamber are being found : under mountain castle Julchun tomb, under Woo-moutain number 1041 tomb, under Woo-moutain number 3319 tomb, under mountain castle number 1405 tomb, under mountain castle number 1408 tomb, under mountain castle number 725 tomb, under mountain castle number 798 tomb. The fact that wall paintings are discovered in stone-filed tombs gives important suggestion related to the reception of mural painting tombs. I intends to clarify the types of Koguryo mural tombs, which have been excavated up to date, by form of their structures and contents. The form of Koguryo mural tombs can be categorized into 'Da-sil-boon(a burial site which is consisted of more than three rooms; I)', 'Yi-sil-boon(a burial site which is consisted of two rooms; Ⅱ)', 'Dan-sil-boon(a burial site consisted of one room; Ⅲ)' and 'Teuk-soo-boon(a burial site which has a particular structure or shape, thus cannot be defined as being consisted of rooms ; Ⅳ)' in terms of structure. And the form of Koguryo mural tombs can be categorized into the 'portraits and customs(Ⅰ)', 'portraits and customs and decorative patterns(Ⅱ), portraits and customs and Sa-shin-do(Ⅲ), 'decorative patterns(Ⅳ)', 'decorative patterns and Sa-shin-do(Ⅴ), Sa-shin-do(a painting depicting four gods who control four directions Ⅵ) in terms of the contents of mural painting. By these terms, the structure and contents, we can also categorize them into several types: the typeⅠ-Ⅰ which is a combined form of Da-sil-boon(Ⅰ) and portraits and customs(Ⅰ), the typeⅠ-Ⅱ which is a combined form of Da-sil-boon(Ⅰ) and portraits and customs and decorative patterns(Ⅱ), the typeⅠ-Ⅲ a combined form of Da-sil-boon(Ⅰ) and portraits and customs and Sa-shin-do(Ⅲ), the type Ⅱ-Ⅰ which is a combined form of Yi-sil-boon(Ⅱ) and portraits and customs(Ⅰ), the type Ⅱ-Ⅱ which is a combined form of Yi-sil-boon(Ⅱ) and portraits and customs and decorative patterns (Ⅱ), the type Ⅱ-Ⅲ which is a combined form of Yi-sil-boon(Ⅱ) and portraits and customs and Sa-shin-do(Ⅲ), the type Ⅲ-Ⅰ which is a combined form of Dan-sil-boon(Ⅲ) and portraits and customs(Ⅰ), the type Ⅲ-Ⅲ which is a combined form of Dan-sil-boon(Ⅲ) and portraits and customs and Sa-shin-do(Ⅲ), the type Ⅲ-Ⅳ which is a combined form of Dan-sil-boon(Ⅲ) and decorative patterns(Ⅳ), the type Ⅲ-Ⅴ which is a combined form of Dan-sil-boon(Ⅲ) and decorative patterns and Sa-shin-do(Ⅴ), the type Ⅲ-Ⅵ which is a combined form of Dan-sil-boon(Ⅲ) and d Sa-shin-do(Ⅴ). And a particular type which is a combined form of Teuk-soo-boon and portraits and customs(Ⅳ-Ⅰ), Teuk-soo-boon and portraits and customs and decorative patterns (Ⅳ-Ⅱ)
Meanwhile, seeing the structure of the burial chamber of Seoksil-bongto-bun(A kind of a tomb that is portioned with stone and the rest part is piled-up by soil) we can find that seven Jeok-seok-chong(stone-filed tomb) are the type Ⅲ-A, Ⅲ-B and Ⅱ-B. The under mountain castle(San-seong-ha) No.725, under mountain castle No.798, under Woo mountain (Woo-san-ha) No.3319 are the Ⅲ-A types. The San-seong-ha Jeol-cheon-jeong-myo, Woo-san-ha N0.1041, San-seong-ha No.1405 are the Ⅲ-B types. The San-seong-ha N.1408 is the Ⅱ-B type. Among these, the San-seong-ha Jeol-cheon-jeong-myo, Woo-san-ha No.1041 and Woo-san-ha No.3319 are identified having the portraits and customs(Ⅰ) as their mural painting. This fact led us to suppose that other three tombs may have the portraits and customs(Ⅰ) as their mural painting. As a result, we can conclude that these stone-filed tombs can exist in both the type Ⅱ-Ⅰ and the type Ⅲ-Ⅲ.
These tombs can be arrayed in this order in time order: (Ⅰ-Ⅰ) · (Ⅲ-Ⅰ) -> (Ⅰ-Ⅱ) · (Ⅰ-Ⅲ) · (Ⅱ-Ⅰ) · (Ⅱ-Ⅲ) -> (Ⅰ-Ⅵ) · (Ⅱ-Ⅱ) -> (Ⅲ-Ⅲ) · (Ⅲ-Ⅳ) -> (Ⅲ-Ⅴ) · (Ⅲ-Ⅵ). With this transition and development proven by formal categorization the chronicle can be defined: The type of (Ⅰ-Ⅰ) is a Da-sil-boon with portraits and customs. Anak N. 3 built in 357 can be the standard for the chronicle. It was commonly distributed from the middle of the 4th century to the late 5th century. The type (Ⅲ-Ⅰ), a Dan-sil-boon with portraits and customs seems to had been built in the near age. The Deokheungri tomb which was built in 408 can be the standard of the type of (Ⅰ-Ⅱ), (Ⅰ-Ⅲ), (Ⅱ-Ⅰ) and (Ⅱ-Ⅲ). They are Da-Sil-Boon with portraits, customs and Sa-shin-do and Yi-sil-boon with portraits and customs and they had been commonly distributed from the first half to the middle of the 5th century. The type of (Ⅰ-Ⅵ) and (Ⅱ-Ⅱ) are Da-sil-boon with Sa-shin-do or Yi-sil-boon with portraits, customs and Sa-shin-do or portraits, customs and decorative patterns. These seem to be built from the middle of the 5th century and the late 5th century. The type of (Ⅲ-Ⅲ) and (Ⅲ-Ⅳ) are Dan-sil-boon with portraits, customs and Sa-shin-do or rooms of regressive form and decorative patterns. These are supposed to be built from the middle of the 5th century to the first half of the 6th century. The type of (Ⅲ-Ⅴ) and (Ⅲ-Ⅵ) are Dan-sil-boon with decorative patterns, Sa-shin-do or Dan-sil-boon with Sa-shin-do. These are supposed to be built from the late 5th century to the first half of the 7th century.
Meanwhile, among the stone-filed tombs seven wall-painted tombs can be divided into three forms: type Ⅲ-A, type Ⅲ-B and type Ⅱ-B by the structure of Seoksil bongto-bun. The type Ⅲ-A are San-seong-ha No.725, San-seong-ha No.798, Woo-san-ha No.3319. The type Ⅲ-B are San-seong-ha Jeol-cheon-jeong-myo, Woo-san-ha No.1041. San-seong-ha No.1405. The type Ⅱ-B is San-seong-ha No.1408. Among these stone-filed tombs San-seong-ha Jeol-cheon-jeong-myo, Woo-san-ha No.1041, Woo-san-ha No.3319 have wall paintings which depict portraits and customs and the rest four tombs are also supposed to have wall paintings depicting portraits and customs. Thus these stone-filled tombs are divided into two types: one is Yi-Sil-Boon and has wall paintings of portrait and customs, the other is Dan-sil-boon and has wall paintings of portrait and customs. And It was already mentioned that Woo-san-ha No. 3319 is supposed to be built in 357, so this tomb can be the standard of chronicles of ancient Koguryo tombs. Woo-san-ha No. 3319 is a special type of tomb(Gyedan-jeonsil stone-filled tomb; Stairway stone-filled tomb with blocked room) However, this tombs has some traits which provide that it was built relatively earlier than other tombs: It contains celadon porcelains of East Qin. This means it was influenced by the ancient Chinese culture. San-seong-ha No. 798 and 725 have rooms on the route. In other word, this was built in the first half of the 5th century considering that Kyedan-seoksil-jeokseok-chong(Stairway stone-filled tomb with stoned room) did not appear until the late 4th century. Woo-san-ha No. 1041 and San-seong-ha No. 1405 and San-seong-ha No. 1408 are stairway-shaped and having one room. They are supposed to be built in the middle of the 5th century.
This chronicle of ancient Koguryo tomb is provided by the form of table in the text. This chronicle is based on the research on the tombs whose blueprint could be extracted from the wall painting of them and the content of wall painting could be concretely perceived.
Approaching the burier of mural painting tomb is a difficult problem. This paper has tried to verify the burier of Koguryo mural painting tombs by looking through the records of ‘Samguksagi’, ‘Samgukyusa’ and historical records from Japan. Since the names of burial ground of Koguryo king s are recorded in Samguksagi, not able differences can be ascribed to maladministration of the royal tomb.
Anak number 3 tomb had a lot of controversies regarding the problem of the burier of the tomb. In the perspective of Dongsu’s tomb, it tried to illustrate the historical estrangement between ink-written writings of the burial ground and ‘Seong-sang-beon(聖上幡)’. Accordingly with the belief that government official position found in ink-written writings of Anak number 3 tomb is false, painting of parade and 聖上幡’s ink writings can also be considered a falsehood. painting of parade and 聖上幡’s ink writings are not drawn to show current livings to be extended again in future life but to show after death would be better than the present. Besides mural painting tombs which express the Gaesae idea (A thought of desiring wealth and prosperity of a lifetime may prolong after death) there are also other mural painting tombs which show hope for better life after-death. Those wishing for better life after-death can be found in ‘王(king)’ portrait designed mural painting tombs and yellow dragon drawn mural painting tombs.
After transfer of the capital to Pyeongyang, there is a high probability that the names of Koguryo kings followed the names of the burial site starting from the Jangsu King. This paper has looked through historical records with a perspective that big-sized Koguryo mural painting tombs in Pyeongyang area are mostly royal tombs according to the hierarchical order. Jangsu royal tomb has a high possibility of existing in Pyeongyang area. And to be more specific, it may be Dongmyung royal tomb. Jinpari old mound in the area of Dongmyung royal tomb has a high possibility of being in the construction area of Koguryo royal tomb. Therefore Jinpari number 1, 4 and 7 can be understood as the possession of Anjang king, Munjamyung king and Joda.
Samguksagi confirms that several names of the kings originated from their burial site names starting from Anwon king. From Anwon king, royal tomb construction areas were divided to different individual areas. Therefore big-sized Seoksil bongto-bun(A kind of a tomb that is portioned with stone and the rest part is piled-up by soil.) found in Pyeongyang area has high possibility of being a mural painting royal tomb which was built after sixth century. Currently confirmed mural painting tombs built after sixth century are Gaema tomb, Naeri number 1, Jinpari number 1, Jinpari number 4, Jinpari number 7, Honamri sasin tomb, Gangseo big tomb, Gangseo middle tomb and so forth. Among these some may be built into royal tomb. This paper has assumed Honamri sasin tomb as the Anwon king. Moreover it is hard to discuss both Gangseo big tomb and Gangseo middle tomb as a royal tomb. Only Gangseo big tomb can be said as a king Pyongwon's tomb. Hereafter, Koguryo royal tomb location problem should be conducted with a more diversified examination.
Chapter Ⅳ is study on Sacrificial Rites of Koguryo tombs. This study observes the construction of Koguryo stone-filed tombs and the act of ancestral rites in order to understand the aspect of Koguryo people’s religion and ancestral rites. Archaeological data and documentary record about Myo-sang architecture(Build and architecture above a tomb), altar, Bae-chong(small tomb situated next to the main tomb), arbor, tomb furnishing, mural painting, Sumyo(ancient custom of guarding a tomb) that can be seen on Koguryo stone-filed tombs history or the boundaries of a grave are examined.
Generally funeral rites can be categorized into three stages, ‘Bin-ryeong rites’ held right after a person’s death until main funeral, ‘Jang-song rites’ held from the grave, ‘Myo-jeon rites(ceremony held in front of tombs)’ after the burial and ‘Chu-seon rites’ which can be added as an option. Myo-sang architecture of the stone-filed tomb may have functioned as a symbolic meaning of a king’s bedchamber or at least as a place which holds a ceremony or an ancestral rite. Stone-filed tombs with myo-sang architectures are mainly those built in huge sizes. Namely the owner of a tomb with a bedchamber may be a king, a person from a royal family or a noble class. Currently the remains of an altar are in an ambiguous state. However it can be considered as a temporarily built ceremonial facility related to Myo-jeon rites. Likewise the case of ‘Bae-chong’ also has some controversy but there is no doubt that it is a notable facility concerning after-death religion and ancestral rites. Documentary records of Koguryo stone-filed tomb confirm that arbores found inside the boundaries of a grave are related to tree-cult religion and can be considered as a component of hu-jang. Sumyo custom which can be confirmed through documentary records is not directly related to ‘Simyosali’(offsprings taking care of their parents grave by living next to it for few years.). However it can be thought as a kind of ‘Chu-seon rites’ in the aspect of protecting and managing royal tomb. Grave goods found in Koguryo stone-filed tombs are an important outcome concerning ancestral rites. Especially a large amount of roof tiles, inscriptive end pieces of roof tiles, bells, bricks reflect ancestral rites and after-death related religions. Intentional demolition of grave goods also took place in Koguryo. Mural painting which gained attention as a funeral art of ‘Seoksil-Bongto-bun(kind of tomb that is portioned with a stone and the rest part is piled-up by soil)’ is found in six wall-painted tombs of stone-filed ones. Therefore it should not be neglected. Wall paintings of stone-filed tombs are mostly those showing living customs which can be connected to ‘Gaesae idea’(thought of desiring wealth and prosperity of a lifetime may prolong after death).
Hence Koguryo people’s religion and ancestral rites are confirmable through Myo-sang architecture, altar, Bae-chong, excavated relic, mural painting and documentary record. Since stone-filed tombs were constructed with a focus on their external form, ancestral rites were mainly expressed to the outer part. Big-sized stone-filed tombs with Myo-sang architecture, altar, Bae-chong, Sumyo-in(Person who guards a tomb)are generally huge-sized ones that belong to the royal family.
And this study is on the religious mind and the relevant matters by wall paintings and the facilities in the Seoksil-bongto-bun. Seoksil-bongto-bun have a big size, but express the religious mind or ceremony in interior of tomb. Especially the interior structure and the facilities or traces depicted on the wall paintings contain the religious mind and ceremony form of the period of Seoksil-bongto-bun of Koguryo. Thus this seems to be the reason why a Seoksil-bongto-bun seldom contains exterior facilities. Furthermore, the ancient Koguryo tombs had developed in two different ways in the level of stone-filled tomb and Seoksil-bongto-bun. Of course, these stream had accompanied the transition of tomb form and the religious mind or mind of the people of Koguryo. It means that understanding the tombs or wall paintings can lead to the understanding of the religious mind or ideas of that period.
Diversified examination on the religious mind and the form of ceremony of Koguryo will be needed. In addition, research on Korean own religion or religious mind expressed on the wall paintings should be carried out.
The above research shows that the form of ancient Koguryo tomb has changed from the stone-filled tomb to the Seoksil-bongto-bun. From the middle of the 2nd century to the first half of the 5th century, stone-filled tombs of big size, more that 30 meters per side, began to appear and became the tomb for royal family or upper class.
From the 4th century the Seoksil-bongto-bun with mural painting became abundant by the influence of Chinese culture and after 5th century it became the tomb for the royal family and upper class instead of the stone-filled tomb. Thus the middle of the 2nd century, in which the tomb for the highest ranks appeared, is an important key to figure out the feature of Koguryo dynasty's kingship and the 4th century, in which the change from stone-filled tomb to the Seoksil-bongto-bun with mural painting is apparent, is an important turning point of the transition of ancient Koguryo tomb style. This changes are contemporary with the transfer of the capital, from Guknae castle to Pyeongyang. From that time the Stone-filled tombs began to be equipped with the big stoned room and Seoksil-bongto-bun and stone-filed tomb are combined to some degree to become the Bangdan-seoksil-bongto-bun and after this Seoksil-bongto-bun become the royal tomb.
Meanwhile the concept of the future life and the funeral ceremony of the rulers of Koguryo was concretely revealed by the whole examination of the tombs. At least, the facilities of royal tombs and the burial system of royal family was revealed to a certain extent and in the level of wall-painted tomb the interior facilities shows the status of the buried. The stone-filled tomb and Seoksil-bongto-bun with mural painting reflects the true character of Koguryo. The Koguryo wall-painted tomb with the essential elements of stone-filled tomb, Sa-shin-do and decorative patterns is one of ancient Koguryo tomb's original character distinguished from ancient China tomb's.