현대 서양의 자비 명상 연구 : 티베트 불교의 로종 수행과 그 응용을 중심으로

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

Through interdisciplinary research, this dissertation examines the rise of compassion in the West, specifically the development of compassion-related studies and programs in primary secular institutions and clinical settings, such as major universities, medical centers, the fields of psychology and psychotherapy, and even in major corporations. The reasons for the following examination are many: These new compassion programs and studies are based on the Buddhist version and understanding of compassion. But this Buddhist-based compassion is being extracted from Buddhist philosophical systems and underpinnings and transplanted into or grafted onto Western secular programs. Which leads to the question, what is the nature of this new, buddhist-based but secular compassion? And also to the question of efficacy, in the case of the new compassion cultivation programs being developed within established Western institutions and disciplines. Beyond these reasons for interest, there is the fact that Western culture and institutions are responding to large-scale social suffering with research and programs that may have the potential to relieve or mitigate this suffering, also at scale. These goals share some common ground with Buddhism, although it is early to precisely determine how much common ground really exists. But the seriousness of the Western interest in the possibilities is obvious in the list of participants in this exploration and related programs: social neuroscience, cognitive science, evolutionary psychology, Stanford University, Emory University, Google.
The entry point for my research was mindfulness, the Buddhist-based secular movement in the West that preceded the rise of compassion over thirty years ago, originating this cultural direction and leading, perhaps directly, to the rise of the current interest in compassion. It is clear that mindfulness programs, such as MBSR (Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction), created effects that led to new questions. Whether the new compassion programs are a response to the mindfulness movement or a further extension of it is a current topic of discussion.
While the entry point for research was mindfulness, the beginning point for this dissertation is an examination of compassion within Buddhism, both in definition and in practice. Before attempting to understand the transplanted, secular manifestation of compassion, it is necessary to understand Buddhist compassion from a Buddhist point of view and context. So, I first examine compassion in the Theravada sect of Buddhism in the context of the Four Immeasurables. From there I move on to explore Tibetan Buddhist compassion practice, focusing on the “Seven Cause and Effect Personal Instructions.” Understanding how compassion functions within the Buddhist philosophical framework provides context and clarity for evaluating the secular version in the Western scientific, secular model.
One of the primary inspirations for the secular compassion programs so far has been Tibetan lojong practice. So I devote an entire chapter to the examination of lojong, including origin, meaning and practice. To begin, I explore the two obstacles to enlightenment of lojong teachings―self grasping and self cherishing. From there we move on to the antidote to these obstacles―relative and ultimate bodhicitta. With this general understanding, I examine some of the “59 slogans,” especially focusing on how they work in relation to cultivating bodhicitta.
At this point I move to the new and evolving, secular definition of compassion in the West. In investigating compassion within the fields of psychology and psychotherapy I found that compassion is considered to be multi-faceted, and not simple or singular in definition. I also examined the definition of compassion from the evolutionary point of view and within the model of A.B.I.D.E., a clinical setting established by the famous scholar and Zen teacher, Joan Halifax.
With this broad and still developing range of definitions, I then looked at some of the key issues of secular compassion in these Western settings. Because the compassion movement arises as an effect of the mindfulness movement, it was necessary to go back, define mindfulness in the Buddhist context, examine the secular mindfulness in Western programs, and evaluate the successes and problems of secular mindfulness application. Two of the most visible issues I examined were the relationship between empathy and compassion and the new secular concept of self-compassion, which is clearly problematic from the Buddhist point of view. In the case of empathy/compassion, historically, the West used the term “compassion fatigue” to describe mental distress and exhaustion among caregivers. This term continued in the new Western programs. However, recent scientific research confirms that this term is in error and should be revised to “empathy fatigue.” Compassion, at least in Buddhist understanding, and now also to some extent in the scientific point of view, does not create mental distress and fatigue. Perhaps the more fundamental issue is the concept of self-compassion. Because of self loathing and other common ego-related concepts and issues in the West, self-compassion is thought to be the essential starting point for compassion practice. However, this is a non-starter from a Buddhist point of view. In Buddhism all practices begin with and depend on right view. Although right view is defined in slightly different ways in different schools of Buddhism, all schools include as fundamental, dependent origination. And one of the consequences of dependent origination (and right view) is the impossibility of a solid, separate self. Therefore, practicing self-compassion is counter productive and based on a confused view of experience, from a Buddhist point of view.
At this point I began a general overview of the secular compassion programs, beginning with Emory University’s Cognitively-Based Compassion Training (CBCT). CBCT is directly derived from the Tibetan practices of lojong and lam rim. It seeks to cultivate “well-being” and expand compassion to others who are outside the immediate in-group, softening the heart, and developing wholesome values and behaviors.
Next, I looked at Compassion Cultivation Training (CCT), created at Stanford University. CCT is also based directly on lojong and lam rim. CCT focuses on developing resilience and a greater sense of connectedness, generating well-being through compassion cultivation.
And then I examined the Mindful Self-Compassion (MSC) Training Program. This program I studied in depth, by first participating in the program, personally, and then acquiring certification as an MSC teacher. This approach provided additional experiential insight to my formal research. MSC focuses on emotional healing through mindfulness and the understanding of self-compassion.
After MSC, I looked at the ReSource, a program of the Max Planck Institute in Germany. The ReSource project trains mindful attention, “socio-cognitive abilities,” and prosocial motivations and compassion.
Finally, I researched Compassion Focused Therapy (CFT), originated by Paul Gilbert at the University of Derby. CFT employs a wide range of approaches and therapies to cultivate mindfulness, compassion and the skills to avoid and relieve suffering in self and others.
Following the overview, I began an analysis of the programs in more depth. I looked primarily at three things: the current scientific data on program effects and benefits, the features common to all or most programs, and the program goals, or targets of transformation, such as perspective, intention, motivation. I then examined the fundamental issue of the secular concept of “self,” and explored the relationship of Buddhist “wisdom” to the understanding of these compassion cultivation programs.
In the conclusion I focused on the manifestation of institutionalized suffering in modern societies. And the need for institutional-scale responses and antidotes. Although, as I indicate, compassion-based secular programs lack the depth and reach of Buddhist solutions, they do provide practical and scalable models that relieve suffering. As Buddhism teaches, all suffering should be relieved. The ongoing dialogue between Buddhism and Western disciplines is already generating benefits to the larger society. As the dialogue continues into the future, new areas of research seem likely to develop, expanding cooperation in the areas of mutual interest and concern.

목차 (Table of Contents)

• Ⅰ. 서론 1
• 1. 연구 목적 1
• 2. 연구의 범위와 방법 5
• Ⅱ. 자비의 정의와 수행 11
• 1. 자비의 정의 11
• 1) 상좌부 불교의 자비 13
• 2) 대승 불교의 자비 22
• 2. 자비의 수행 33
• 1) 상좌부 불교의 자비 수행 33
• 2) 티베트 불교의 자비 수행 41
• Ⅲ. 티베트 불교 로종의 이해 67
• 1. 로종의 의미와 기원 68
• 2. 로종의 핵심적인 토대 73
• 1) 깨달음의 두 장애 73
• 2) 승의적 보리심과 세속적 보리심 77
• 3. 일곱 가지 핵심 마음 수행의 실제 83
• 1) 로종의 슬로건 84
• 2) 수행과 변화 86
• 3) 슬로건의 실제 89
• Ⅳ. 자비의 현대적 해석 103
• 1. 현대 서양의 자비 개념 이해 103
• 1) 심리학과 심리 치료적 관점 103
• 2) 진화론적 관점 113
• 3) 임상 의학에서 자비의 이해 127
• 2. 현대 서양의 자비 담론 전개 135
• 1) 마음 챙김과 자비 138
• 2) 공감과 자비 152
• 3) 자기 자비 171
• Ⅴ. 현대 서양의 자비 계발 프로그램들 190
• 1. CBCT(인지적 기반의 자비 수행) 190
• 1) CBCT의 등장 배경과 목표 190
• 2) CBCT의 이론적 토대 191
• 3) CBCT의 구조 195
• 2. CCT(자비 계발 수행) 202
• 1) CCT의 등장 배경과 목표 202
• 2) 명상 수행으로서 CCT의 토대 204
• 3) CCT의 구조 205
• 3. MSC(마음 챙김의 자기 자비) 214
• 1) MSC의 등장 배경과 이론적 토대 214
• 2) MSC의 구조 216
• 4. 리소스(ReSource) 230
• 1) 리소스의 등장 배경과 이론적 토대 230
• 2) 리소스 프로그램의 구조 232
• 5. CFT(자비 중심 치료) 241
• 1) CFT의 등장 배경과 목표 241
• 2) CFT의 이론적 토대 243
• 3) CFT의 자비의 속성 247
• Ⅵ. 현대 서양의 자비 명상의 과제 252
• 1. 자비 계발 프로그램들의 진단 252
• 1) 자비의 수행과 그 효용 253
• 2) 자비 계발 프로그램들의 공통점 257
• 3) 자비 계발 프로그램들의 목표, 변화의 대상 262
• 2. 자비의 계발에서 자아와 지혜의 문제 265
• 1) 자비의 계발에서 자아의 문제 265
• 2) 자비의 계발에서 지혜의 문제 270
• Ⅶ. 결론 288
• 참고문헌 301
• Abstract 327

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