The Fluoride Debate: The Pros and Cons of Fluoridation

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

Fluoride is one of the most abundant elements found in nature. Water is the major dietary source of fluoride. The only known association with low fluoride intake is the risk of dental caries. Initially, fluoride was considered beneficial when given systemically during tooth development, but later research has shown the importance and the advantages of its topical effects in the prevention or treatment of dental caries and tooth decay. Water fluoridation was once heralded as one of the best public health achievements in the twentieth century. Since this practice is not feasible or cost effective in many regions, especially rural areas, researchers and policy makers have explored other methods of introducing fluoride to the general population such as adding fluoride to milk and table salt. Lately, major concerns about excessive fluoride intake and related toxicity were raised worldwide, leading several countries to ban fluoridation. Health-care professionals and the public need guidance regarding the debate around fluoridation. This paper reviews the different aspects of fluoridation, their effectiveness in dental caries prevention and their risks. It was performed in the PubMed and the Google Scholar databases in January 2018 without limitation as to the publication period.

목차 (Table of Contents)

• ABSTRACT
• INTRODUCTION
• MODE OF ACTION
• WATER FLUORIDATION
• MILK FLUORIDATION
• SALT FLUORIDATION
• COMBINATION OF MULTIPLE FLUORIDE SOURCES
• INCREASING OPPOSITION TO FLUORIDATION
• CASE STUDY: SALT FLUORIDATION IN LEBANON
• CONCLUSION
• REFERENCES

참고문헌 (Reference)

1 Armfield JM, "When public action undermines public health: a critical examination of antifluoridationist literature" 4 : 25-, 2007

2 Water New Zealand, "Water New Zealand good practice guide: supply of fluoride for use in water treatment" 1-18, 1997

3 "United States Food and Drug Administration"

4 Levy SM, "Total fluoride intake and implications for dietary fluoride supplementation" 59 : 211-223, 1999

5 Ding Y, "The relationships between low levels of urine fluoride on children's intelligence, dental fluorosis in endemic fluorosis areas in Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia, China" 186 : 1942-1946, 2011

6 Willinger CC, "The effect of sodium fluoride at prophylactic and toxic doses on renal structure and function in the isolated perfused rat kidney" 95 : 55-71, 1995

7 Haddad L, "The Global Nutrition Report 2014: actions and accountability to accelerate the world's progress on nutrition" 145 : 663-671, 2015

8 Hellwig E, "Systemic versus topical fluoride" 38 : 258-262, 2004

9 McDonagh MS, "Systematic review of water fluoridation" 321 : 855-, 2000

10 Chen L, "Study on the residue and degradation of fluorine-containing pesticides in Oolong tea by using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry" 25 : 433-440, 2012

11 Rackoff P, "Skeletal fluorosis-a tricky diagnosis" 67 : 2701-, 2015

12 Woodward SM, "School milk as a vehicle for fluoride in the United Kingdom. An interim report" 18 : 150-156, 2001

13 Pollick HF, "Salt fluoridation: a review" 41 : 395-, 2013

14 Marthaler TM, "Salt fluoridation and oral health" 42 : 140-155, 2013

15 Brough L, "Revisiting the Iodine Global Network's definition of iodine status by country" 115 : 374-376, 2016

16 National Research Council, "Recommended dietary allowances" The National Academies Press 235-240, 1989

17 CDC, "Recommendations for using fluoride to prevent and control dental caries in the United States"

18 Madlena M, "Prevention of dental caries with fluorides in Hungary" 10 : 84-94, 2014

19 Beltran-Aguilar ED, "Prevalence and severity of dental fluorosis in the United States, 1999-2004. NCHS Data Brief no. 53" 2010

20 Palmer CA, "Position of the academy of nutrition and dietetics: the impact of fluoride on health" 112 : 1443-1453, 2012

21 Ministry of Health, "Our oral health: key findings of the 2009 New Zealand oral health survey" 273-278, 2010

22 Doumit M, "Oral health in school children in Lebanon" 12 : 223-228, 2002

23 Ullah R, "Oral and dental delivery of fluoride: a review" 48 : 195-204, 2015

24 Ekstrand J, "No evidence of transfer of fluoride from plasma to breast milk" 283 : 761-762, 1981

25 Bennett BL, "Mosby's review questions for the national board dental hygiene examination" Elsevier Inc 237-, 2014

26 "Ministry of Health"

27 Banoczy J, "Milk-a vehicle for fluorides: a review" 2 : 415-426, 2006

28 Banoczy J, "Milk fluoridation for the prevention of dental caries" 42 : 156-167, 2013

29 Banoczy J, "Milk fluoridation for the prevention of dental caries" WHO Press 2009

30 Petersen PE, "Long-term evaluation of the clinical effectiveness of community milk fluoridation in Bulgaria" 32 : 199-203, 2015

31 Fadlallah R, "K2P rapid response: informing the salt fluoridation law in Lebanon" Knowledge to Policy (K2P) Center 5-6, 2015

32 Poureslami HR, "Intelligence quotient of 7 to 9 year-old children from an area with high fluoride in drinking water" 3 : 61-64, 2011

33 AbuZeid K, "Impact of fluoride content in drinking water" 2007

34 WHO Expert Committee on Oral Health Status and Fluoride Use, "Fluorides and oral health: report of a WHO Expert Committee on Oral Health Status and Fluoride Use" World Health Organization 1994

35 Martinez-Mier EA, "Fluoride: its metabolism, toxicity, and role in dental health" 17 : 28-32, 2012

36 Ortiz-Perez D, "Fluoride-induced disruption of reproductive hormones in men" 93 : 20-30, 2003

37 Marinho VC, "Fluoride varnishes for preventing dental caries in children and adolescents" 2013

38 Meunier PJ, "Fluoride salts are no better at preventing new vertebral fractures than calcium-vitamin D in postmenopausal osteoporosis: The FAVOStudy" 8 : 4-12, 1998

39 Whitford GM, "Fluoride metabolism and excretion in children" 59 : 224-228, 1999

40 Augenstein WL, "Fluoride ingestion in children: a review of 87 cases" 88 : 907-912, 1991

41 Bentley EM, "Fluoride ingestion from toothpaste by young children" 186 : 460-462, 1999

42 Sawan RM, "Fluoride increases lead concentrations in whole blood and in calcified tissues from lead-exposed rats" 271 : 21-26, 2010

43 National Research Council, "Fluoride in drinking water: a scientific review of EPA's standards" The National Academies Press 85-106, 2006

44 National Research Council, "Fluoride in drinking water: a scientific review of EPA's standards" The National Academies Press 74-, 2006

45 Haguenauer D, "Fluoride for treating postmenopausal osteoporosis" 2000 : 2000

46 Fein NJ, "Fluoride content of foods made with mechanically separated chicken" 49 : 4284-4286, 2001

47 O'Mullane DM, "Fluoride and oral health" 33 : 69-99, 2016

48 "Fluoride Action Network"

49 Freni SC, "Exposure to high fluoride concentrations in drinking water is associated with decreased birth rates" 42 : 109-121, 1994

50 Stamp TC, "Encyclopaedia of food science, food technology and nutrition" Academic Press 1932-, 1993

51 Yeung CA, "Efficacy of salt fluoridation" 12 : 17-18, 2011

52 Jiang Y, "Effects of excess fluoride and iodide on thyroid function and morphology" 170 : 382-389, 2016

53 Hao P, "Effect of fluoride on human hypothalamus-hypophysis-testis axis hormones" 39 : 53-55, 2010

54 Arnold FA Jr, "Effect of fluoridated public water supplies on dental caries prevalence. 1956" 84 : 761-764, 2006

55 Rocha-Amador D, "Decreased intelligence in children and exposure to fluoride and arsenic in drinking water" 23 : S579-S587, 2007

56 Jurdi M, "Decision to fluoridate. 1. Fluoride levels in herbal teas used in Lebanese communities" 22 : 62-66, 2001

57 Carlsson A, "Current problems relating to the pharmacology and toxicology of fluorides" 14 : 1388-1392, 1978

58 Varner JA, "Chronic administration of aluminum-fluoride or sodium-fluoride to rats in drinking water: alterations in neuronal and cerebrovascular integrity" 784 : 284-298, 1998

59 Levy SM, "Associations of fluoride intake with children's bone measures at age 11" 37 : 416-426, 2009

60 Cohn PD, "An epidemiologic report on drinking water and fluoridation" Environmental Health Service, State of New Jersey Department of Health 1-29, 1992

61 Cheng KK, "Adding fluoride to water supplies" 335 : 699-, 2007

62 Whitford GM, "Acute toxicity of ingested fluoride" 22 : 66-80, 2011

63 Whitford GM, "Acute and chronic fluoride toxicity" 71 : 1249-1254, 1992

64 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, "Achievements in public health, 1900-1999: fluoridation of drinking water to prevent dental caries" 283 : 1283-1286, 2000

65 Barker JC, "Acceptability of salt fluoridation in a rural latino community in the United States: an ethnographic study" 11 : e0158540-, 2016

66 American Dental Association, "ADA Fluoridation Policy"

67 Cagetti MG, "A systematic review on fluoridated food in caries prevention" 71 : 381-387, 2013

68 Sagheri D, "A comparison of dental caries levels in two communities with different oral health prevention strategies stratified in different social classes" 67 : 1-7, 2007

69 Connett P, "50 reasons to oppose fluoridation" 1 : 70-80, 2004