몽골제국 카안울루스에서의 말과 일상의 변화·충돌·조정 ―비싸고 짓밟고 늙고 병들고 잃고― = Spread of Horses in People’s Daily Lives in the Qa’an Ulus of the Mongol Empire: Changes, Conflicts and Settlements —Expensive, Treading, Aging, Sick and Lost Horses—

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

This paper examines the spread of horse riding culture, horse trade, and horse raising knowledge in the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries and its effects and defects in the daily lives in the Qa’an ulus (or, the Yuan dynasty) of the Mongol empire.
The previous works greatly contributes to our understanding the production and management of horses in Mongolia, China and Goryeo (especially, Tamla 耽羅, or present Jejudo, Korea) in the empire in terms of military and economic affairs, and comprehending the operation of horse ranches in East and West Asia. On the other hand, they paid little attention to how horses in and out of Mongolia had affected society, culture and daily life in the Mongol steppe, as well as in the rural and urban areas. Precedent studies slightly neglected the colorful variables of horses as animals, and their multifaceted ties with people.
The Mongols were able to nurture and supply high-quality horses with efficient labor of pastoral nomadism. The Mongols were very good at raising and riding horses. Mongolia was rich in grass and water, so it was suitable for herding sheep and horses. The Nongsang jiyao 農桑輯要, the Essentials of Agriculture and Sericulture provides a manual of feeding horses, their diseases and prescriptions. The Jujia biyong shilei quanji 居家必用事類全集, the Complete Collection of Classified Affairs Essential for Those Living at Home, one of the encyclopedias compiled under Mongol rule in the Yuan dynasty, which contains daily obligations of living among people, also elaborates the general methods to raise horses in a chapter of the “Yangma conglun” 養馬總論 and the essential knowledge to breed and raise livestock in a chapter of the “Muyang xuzhi” 牧養須知. The existence of these manuals supports the spread of horses and knowledge of horse raising in China.
However, the manual did not necessarily guarantee the stabilization of the methods to raise horses. In the 1230s, the Chinese grew horses in exactly opposite ways of horse raising of the Mongols, so horses often got sick.
The Mongols established administrative offices for stable supply and management of horses in China, such as the Quanmu suo 羣牧所, or the Office of Imperial Horse Raising and Harnesses, the Taipu si 太僕寺, or the Office of Imperial Horses, and others. The imperial pasturelands of the Qa’an ulus reached from Tamla (present Jejudo, Korea) in the east to Qori Tumat 火里禿麻 (now areas from the east to the west of the lake Baikal) in the north, Gansu 甘肅 in the west and Yunnan 雲南 in the south. The continual conquest of the Mongol troops and the consequent increase in horse demand stimulated the need for knowledge of horse raising and prompted the spread of the knowledge.
The imperial spread and infiltration of horses caused widespread repercussions in the multi-aspect daily lives of subjects under the Mongols. Despite the increase in horses, unlike other livestock, people could not easily eat horses and cattle. Horse riding was a privilege, so horse raising was also sometimes a prerogative. Horse raising farmers or nomads often exercised illegalities against people. The increase of horses in farming lands in China often adversely affected agriculture and crops. Horse riding could cause accidents on the streets and alleys in cities and towns. Livestock was often lost. The Mongol government took a variety of administrative measures to solve these problems. In another point of view, unlike crops, horses were a product of greater burden to people and causing state intervention.

참고문헌 (Reference)

1 國學大師, "歷史知識 折連怯呆兒"

2 조영헌, "하버드 중국사 원명 곤경에 빠진 제국" 너머북스 2014

3 김한신, "하버드 중국사 : 열린 세계 제국. 당" 너머북스 2017

4 金浩東, "칭기스 칸의 子弟分封에 대한 再檢討―『集史』 <千戶一覽>의 分析을 중심으로―" 중앙아시아학회 9 : 29-65, 2004

5 이평래, "중앙유라시아의 역사" 소나무 2005

6 박원길, "조선시대 유학자들이 본 제주의 유목문화―조선시대 문헌기록을중심으로" 48 : 48-48, 2017

7 설배환, "몽골제국에서 賦稅의 시행과 그 帝國的 체계 이해를 위한 試論" 동양사학회 (139) : 169-218, 2017

8 Marco Polo, "마르코 폴로의 동방견문록" 사계절 2000

9 김일우, "고려후기 濟州？몽골의 만남과 제주사회의 변화" 고려사학회 (15) : 2-74, 2003

10 강만익, "고려말 탐라목장의 운영과 영향" 탐라문화연구원 (52) : 67-106, 2016

11 彭大雅, "黑韃事略" 中華書局 1985

12 李逸友, "黑城出土文書(漢文文書卷)" 科學出版社 1991

13 川嶋舟, "馬が語る古代東アジア世界史" 汲古書院 2018

14 忽思慧, "飮膳正要" 中國商業出版社 1988

15 方齡貴, "通制條格校注" 中華書局 2001

16 蘇力, "近年來元代災害史研究概況" 2012

17 元世祖勅, "農桑輯要" 中華書局 1985

18 王禎, "農書" 欽定四庫全書·子部·農書

19 王培華, "試論元代北方蝗災群發性韻律性及國家減災措施" 1999

20 孟珙, "蒙韃備錄" 中國書店

21 孟珙, "蒙韃備錄"

22 金泰能, "蒙古의 耽羅支配와 崔瑩將軍의 牧胡討伐" 12 : 1959

23 吉原公平, "蒙古馬政史" 東學社 1938

24 薛培煥, "蒙古帝國站戶消乏再考―合罕兀鲁思驛站爲中心" 14 : 14-14, 2014

25 札奇斯欽, "蒙古史論叢 上" 學海出版社 1980

26 王國維, "蒙古史料四種校注" 淸華學校硏究院 1926

27 陳祝三, "蒙元과 濟州馬" 8 : 1989

28 설배환, "蒙·元제국 쿠릴타이(Quriltai) 연구" 서울대학교 대학원 2016

29 金泰能, "耽羅와 元의 牧養時代(完)" 19 : 1965

30 金泰能, "耽羅와 元의 牧養時代" 18 : 1964

31 馬祖常, "石田先生文集" 中州古籍出版社 1991

32 馬祖常, "石田先生文集" 書目文獻出版社

33 王磊, "略論元代的馬政" 2011

34 "永樂大典 19416-19426" 文殿閣書莊

35 酒歌說文, "民間故事：姑娘許諾嫁白馬, 老父失約下殺手"

36 徐元瑞, "楊訥 點校" 浙江古籍出版社 1988

37 熊夢祥, "析津志輯佚" 北京古籍出版社 1983

38 "東文選(한국고전종합DB)"

39 "東國李相國全集(한국고전종합DB)"

40 "居家必用事類全集(申集)"

41 大元馬政記, "大元馬政記(據廣倉學宭叢書重印)" 文殿閣書莊

42 高文德, "十至十三世紀初期蒙古畜牧業經濟的發展" 1979

43 蕭大亨, "北虜風俗" 文殿閣書莊

44 顧嗣立, "元詩選(初集·庚集)" 中華書局 1987

45 王曉欣, "元湖州路戶籍冊初探―宋刊元印本『增修互注禮部韻略』第一冊紙背公文紙資料整理與硏究" 110 : 2015

46 渡辺健哉, "元大都形成史の硏究 : 首都北京の原型" 東北大學出版會 2017

47 "元史" 中華書局 標點校勘本

48 陳高華, "元典章 (一·二·三·四)" 中華書局·天津古籍出版社 2011

49 楊旺生, "元代蝗災防治措施及成效論析" 2007

50 蔡美彪, "元代白話碑集錄" 中國社會科學出版社 2017

51 蔡美彪, "元代白話碑集錄" 科學出版社 1954

52 翟禹, "元代災害史研究述評(一)" 2018

53 黃時鑑, "元代法律資料輯存" 浙江古籍出版社 1988

54 邱樹森, "元代奏議集錄(下冊)" 浙江古籍出版社 1998

55 王培華, "元代北方災荒與救濟" 北京師範大學出版社 2010

56 王惲, "元人文集珍本叢刊 2" 新文豊出版公司

57 高昌錫, "元·明交替期의 濟州島―牧胡亂을 중심으로" 4 : 1985

58 陸人驥, "中國歷代蝗災的初步研究" 1986

59 謝成俠, "中國養馬史" 科學出版社 1959

60 高文学, "中国自然灾害史" 地震出版社 1997

61 宮紀子, "ブラルグチ再考" 93 : 2011

62 한국학중앙연구원, "[단행본] 至正條格 : 校註本" 휴머니스트 2007

63 Gommans, Jos, "Warhorse and post-nomadic empire in Asia, c. 1000–1800" 2 : 2007

64 DiMarco, Louis A, "War Horse: A History of The Military Horse and Rider" Westholme Publishing 2008

65 Bold, Bat-Ochir, "The Quantity of Livestock Owned by the Mongols in the 13th Century" 8 (8): 1998

66 Buell, Paul D, "The Horse and the Silk Road: Movement and Ideas"

67 Golden, Peter B, "The Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid Age" Cambridge University Press 2009

68 Alexeev, Valery P, "Rulers from the Steppe: State Formation on the Eurasian Periphery" Ethnographics Press, The University of Southern California 1991

69 Smith, John M. Jr, "Pferde in Asien:Geschichte, Handel und Kultur = Horses in Asia: History" Verlag der Österreichen Akademie der Wissenschaften 2009

70 Yingsheng, Liu, "Pferde in Asien: Geschichte, Handel und Kultur = Horses in Asia: History, Trade and Culture" Verlag der Österreichen Akademie der Wissenschaften 2009

71 Yasuhiro, Yokkaichi, "Pferde in Asien: Geschichte, Handel und Kultur = Horses in Asia: History, Trade and Culture" Verlag der Österreichen Akademie der Wissenschaften 2009

72 Gardelle, Linda, "Miscellanea Asiatica: Mélanges en l’honneur de Françoise Aubin (Festschrift in honour of Françoise Aubin)" Institut Monumenta Serica 2010

73 Olbricht, Peter, "Meng-Ta Pei-Lu und Hei-Ta Shih-Lüeh: Chinesische Gesandtenberichte über die Früchen Mongolen 1221 und 1237" Otto Harrassowitz 1980

74 Sanudo, Marino, "Marino Sanudo Torsello, The Book of the Secrets of the Faithful of the Cross: Liber Secretorum Fidelium Crucis" Ashgate 2011

75 Get a map.net, "Asia/Mongolia/Uvs/Kara-usu Hu(Har-Usnuur)"

76 Mikhail, Alan, "Asia Inside Out: Connected Places" Harvard University Press 2015

77 설배환, "13~14세기 카안의 부엌과 몽골 風味의 지속과 변화" 한국몽골학회 (49) : 1-48, 2017

78 설배환, "13~14세기 몽골초원의 물적 기반과 유목경제의 지속성 고찰" 중앙아시아학회 20 (20): 189-231, 2015

79 설배환, "13~14세기 몽골 황실 쿠릴타이(Quriltai)와 그 帝國的 場所化" 이화사학연구소 (54) : 71-142, 2017

80 권용철, "13~14세기 元­耽羅 관계 연구 동향 분석" 탐라문화연구원 (60) : 41-73, 2019

81 전영준, "13~14세기 元 목축문화의 유입에 따른 제주사회 변화" 40 : 2013