清末民初 시기 신조어 연구 : 신소설에 나타난 어휘를 중심으로 = A study of new words in late Qing dynasty and early republic of China : focus on the vocabulary that appears in the new novel

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

清末民初時期是漢語詞彙發展史中非常重要的一個時期，也是一個讓人忽視的時期。刁晏斌對這一時期的具體時間界定爲1840年—1919年，王力先生也曾提出這一階段是近代向現代的過渡階段。作爲過渡階段的語言詞彙，也具有承前啟後的特點。不過就目前的研究現狀來看，清末民初的詞彙研究還不夠深入、全面，還有很大的探索空間。研究語料集中在清末民初的四大譴責小說及個別知名度高的作品，這對我們全面了解這一時期的詞彙面貌並不利。而清末民初時期產生的新小說，具有鮮明的時代特點，詞彙豐富、特點鮮明，爲我們分析研究這一時期的詞彙提供了極有價值的語料。本文立足於20部清末民初代表性新小說和2部短篇小說集中的詞彙，對其展現的詞彙概貌、詞彙特點進行整理並描寫分析。
本文共分爲五章：
第一章爲緒論。首先說明了本文的研究目的，指出詞彙研究，尤其是清末民初的詞彙研究的薄弱性，指出本文所選取的語料作品並論述了選擇這些語料作品的緣由，以此引出本文的研究目的：一是利於展現清末民初的詞彙面貌，二是利於漢語詞彙史的研究，三是利於現代漢語的溯源，四是利於完善辭書的編纂訂補；其次介紹了清末民初詞彙的研究現狀，分別從宏觀詞彙、專書詞彙、專題詞彙及報刊詞彙四個角度對這一時期詞彙的研究情況進行整理，專書詞彙中包括了全部詞彙研究、詞類研究和特殊詞研究，專題詞彙包括了新詞、外來詞和方言詞研究；最後指明了本文的研究方法，首先對本文所選用的清末民初新小說語料的概況、價值及其語言特點進行綜合表述，了解新小說的產生、內容及特點。接著論述本文的研究方法：辭書查證與語料檢索相結合，描寫與解釋相結合，曆時與共時相結合。
第二章清末民初時期出現的新造詞形態。這一章我們首先確立了新詞的判斷標准及原則，對所選20部新小說和2部小說集中的詞彙進行窮盡式考察，最終考證出1218個新詞，並分別從新詞的來源、新詞的內容、新詞的音節表現、新詞的詞性表現四個方面進行整理歸納。其中新詞來源包括了自源類本土新詞和他源類外來新詞，自源類有完全性本土新詞和意譯詞，前者占主導，後者在清末民初有上升趨勢。他源類出現了純音譯詞、音意兼譯詞、類化音譯詞、音譯加意譯詞及借形詞五方面，以純音譯詞和日源借詞爲主，其中日源借詞成爲該時期新興的外來詞，並在數量上逐漸超過西源外來詞。新詞內容包括了詞彙性新詞和語義性新詞，其中詞彙性新詞占大多數，涉領域豐富多樣，主要有政治類、經濟類、生活類、科技類、軍事類、教育類、交通類、法律類、文藝類九個方面。
清末民初新詞音節方面，單音節詞占少數，僅有23個，在新詞總數中占比1.9%。雙音節詞占有絕對優勢，共737個，占比60.3%，超過一半之多。同時我們也看到三音節新詞呈現迅猛的發展勢頭，在所有的清末民初新詞中占到30%。不僅如此，四音節包括五音節這一類多音節詞彙也呈現增多的趨勢，在整理的新詞中共91個四音節詞，4個五音節詞，約占7.6%，整體來看與前朝音節規律表現一致，但雙音節已不再擁有絕對優勢。清末民初新詞詞性方面，一方面詞性種類豐富、全面，除了常見的名詞、動詞、形容詞、副詞以外，區別詞、量詞、擬聲詞、連詞、數詞也得到了發展；另一方面詞類分布不平衡，名詞在新詞中數量最多，占比73.2%，其次是動詞，形容詞、副詞緊隨其後，像區別詞、量詞、擬聲詞、連詞、數詞有發展，但發展緩慢，尤其是連詞、數詞這樣的虛詞幾乎是停滯狀態。
最後總結出該時期新詞的特點：一是新詞的現代性。清末民初的新詞系統在整體上已經開始屬於現代的範疇，其新詞涵蓋“現代性”的屬性、新詞的現代延續性以及表現出來新的思維方式都是現代性表現。二是新詞的外來性。通商口岸開放、商貿活動活躍，西方傳教士的到來讓漢語與其他諸國語言有了根本性接觸，也爲漢語注入了西方外來因素，出現了大量外來音譯詞、意譯詞以及充當中間之驛騎的日源借詞，爲漢語詞彙系統注入新的活力。三是新詞的混亂性，表現在音節數量不確定、本土造詞不一致、音譯詞形不固定、音譯與意譯並行、借形詞與音譯詞並行、本土詞與音譯詞並行、借形詞與本土造詞並行七個方面，其實就是清末民初詞彙的過渡性表現。
第三章清末民初新詞的生成類型和特征。清末民初新詞產生所表現的類型主要有五種，語素結合造詞、語義轉化造詞、語音造詞、修辭造詞和詞形縮略造詞。語素結合可以分爲組合型和附加型，組合型一種是能直接反映所指對象的實質、本質性特點，一種只是表現本質特點的一部分；附加型主體部分主要是成詞語素，表示著某種概念意義，從屬部分多表現爲詞綴，以及不能單獨成詞的帶有修飾作用的重疊語素。語義轉化造詞，清末民初時期較爲特別的是產生了不少關於科學術語的音譯詞，這些音譯詞大多采用舊有詞來表示，但在古漢語中不常使用，甚至已退出曆史舞台的詞。語音造詞在清末民初時期表現在擬聲、譯音、音變和表情四個方面，其中清末民初在譯音方面自創了大量新詞，即新造了兼顧音與表義偏旁的詞，多表現在化學術語上。修辭造詞在清末民初表現在比喻、借代、誇張、仿擬和引用。詞形改造造詞法在清末民初多爲縮略型和換素型。
最後，我們以清末民初詞彙的造詞特點爲基礎來探究其整個漢語史中的發展變化，總結出漢語在造詞方面凸顯的曆史發展規律：一是語素結合造詞法在清末民初時期仍占主導地位，縱觀漢語詞彙史，語素結合在任何時候都是創造新詞的主要方式。二是清末民初譯音造詞增加。“長”表現在譯音造詞，清末民初產生了大量外來詞，因而譯音造詞在其中起著重要的作用，譯音創制速度快，效率高，且不需要過多考慮所選語素的含義，沒有太多限制，符合清末民初曆史時期的特點，在語音造詞法中占有優勢。三是修辭造詞的延續和發展，清末民初的修辭造詞，主要包括了比喻、借代、誇張、仿擬、引用五種方式，其中比喻造詞和仿擬造詞最爲突出，比喻造詞自古以來都是修辭造詞最主要的方式，仿擬造詞產生需要的條件正是清末民初所符合的，現代漢語仿擬造詞大量產生正是對清末民初表現的延續，二者的表現特點正是凸顯了該時期修辭造詞對曆史的延續以及對未來的發展。
第四章清末民初新詞的詞彙結構。首先對學術界關於造詞法的研究現狀進行論述，構詞法的研究，從最初的構詞研究雛形到現階段用句法結構等理論分析構詞，經曆了一個漫長的階段，現在我們已經可以用較爲成熟的構詞法理論對漢語的構詞進行分析。清末民初的派生詞研究我們分爲詞根與典型詞綴構成的派生詞和詞根與類詞綴構成的派生詞，清末民初的複合詞研究我們分爲清末民初新小說複合詞結構形式的表現和清末民初新小說複合詞結構與詞性的關系。
清末民初的派生詞，首先要確定判斷典型詞綴的標准：位置的固定性、語素的黏著性、意義的虛化性，在此基礎上，本文共整理出清末民初3個“前綴+詞根”類派生詞，25個“詞根+後綴”類派生詞，包括了典型後綴和重疊詞綴。其次對於非典型派生詞，就要明確類詞綴的判斷標准：詞義的非完全虛化性、結構的固定且黏著性、功能的類推能產性，也就是說詞義上處於完全與未完全虛化之間，表現在詞義的類化或泛化；結構上表現在位置固定及對實語素的粘附性；功能上具有類推性，並且在類推的基礎上具有能產性。基於類詞綴的判斷標准，本文研究中發現清末民初6個符合上述條件的類詞綴，分別是家、員、學、式、界、性。
清末民初的複合詞相對來說表現的更加複雜，其各音節複音詞的構詞形式表現的並不一致，比如雙音節複合詞結構多樣、完整，三音節複合詞結構類型較爲固定，集中表現在動賓式、偏正式、補充式三種類型，多音節複合詞基本結構表現單一，大部分都表現爲偏正式和並列式，但個別詞彙凸顯結構豐富性。另外清末民初複合詞的構詞形式表現出分布不平衡的特點，其中偏正式最多，占比72.8%。隨後依次是動賓式占12.4%，並列式占8.6%，補充式占3.4%，主謂式占1.6%，遞續式最少占1.2%。
複合詞的構詞類型複雜多樣，而複合詞的語法結構與詞性及內部詞性的關系更是錯綜複雜。一方面，不同結構的複合詞在各類詞性的分布是不均衡的，另一方面，雖然構詞形式相同，詞性相同，但是這些詞組成的各詞素的詞性卻是不相同的。通過相關數據統計，我們總結出以複合詞構詞詞素性質的角度來看，相同詞性詞素組合中詞素的詞性與複合詞的詞性大體上相一致；而對於不同詞性詞素來說，則一般與組合詞素中的某一類詞素的詞性相一致，且通常與中心詞素的詞性相一致。從複合詞的構詞結構與詞性的關系的角度來看，複合詞一般與構詞結構中的重要成分的詞性相一致，並且在內部詞素的組合中，重要詞性的詞素在組合中一定占有重要地位。
第五章結論。本章主要回顧梳理每一章所考察的內容及結論，並作最後的總結。

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

The period from the end of Qing Dynasty to the beginning of the Republic of China was a very important period in the history of Chinese vocabulary development, and it was also a period that was ignored. Diao Yanbin defined the specific time of this period as 1840-1919. Wang Li also pointed out that this period was a transitional period from modern times to modern . As a language vocabulary in the transitional stage, it also has the characteristics of connecting the past and the future. However, as far as the current research is concerned, the vocabulary research at the end of Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China is not thorough and comprehensive enough, and there is still much room for exploration. The research corpus concentrates on the four condemnation novels from the end of Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, as well as some well-known works. This is not conducive to our comprehensive understanding of the vocabulary of this period. The new novels produced in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China have distinct characteristics of the times, rich vocabulary and distinctive features, which provide us with extremely valuable corpus for analyzing and studying the vocabulary of this period. Based on the vocabulary of 20 representative new novels at the end of Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, and 2 collected short stories, this article summarizes and analyzes the vocabulary overview and vocabulary characteristics it displays.
This article is divided into five chapters:
The first chapter is the introduction.Firstly explained the purpose of this article, pointed out the weakness of vocabulary research, especially in the end of Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, pointed out the corpus works selected in this article, and discussed the reasons for choosing these corpus works. The research purpose of this article is introduced: one is to help show the vocabulary of the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China; the second is to facilitate the study of the history of Chinese vocabulary; the third is to trace the origin of modern Chinese; the fourth is to improve the compilation of dictionaries.Secondly, it introduces the current research status of the vocabulary of the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China. Macroscopic vocabulary, special book vocabulary, special vocabulary and newspaper vocabulary are organized to sort out the vocabulary research of this period. The vocabulary of the special book includes all vocabulary research, part of speech research and special word research. The special vocabulary includes new words, The study of foreign words and dialect words; Finally pointed out the research method of this article，first of all comprehensively describes the general situation, value and language characteristics of the new novel corpus used in this article to understand the production, content and characteristics of the new novel.Then it discusses the research method of this article：the combination of dictionary verification and corpus retrieval, the combination of description and interpretation, and the combination of diachronic and synchronic.
The second chapter is the form of new words in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China. In this chapter, we first established the criteria and principles for judging new words, and conducted an exhaustive investigation of the vocabulary in the selected 20 new novels and 2 collected short stories collections, and finally verified 1,218 new words, and analyzed the source of the new words, the content of new words, the syllable performance of new words, and the part-of-speech performance of new words . The sources of new words include native source new words and foreign source new words. The native source new words includes complete native new words and free translation words. The former dominates, and the latter has an upward trend in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China. There are five aspects in foreign source: purely transliterated words, both transliterated and meaning-translated words, generalized transliterated words, transliteration+free translation words, and borrowed words, mainly in purely transliterated words and Japanese-origin borrowed words, among which Japanese-origin borrowed words have become emerging in this period. Japanese-origin borrowed words are gradually surpass the foreign words of Western origin in number. The content of new words includes lexical new words and semantic new words，among them, lexical neologisms account for the majority, covering a wide variety of fields, including nine aspects: politics, economy, life, science and technology, military, education, transportation, law, and literature.
In terms of syllables of new words in the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, monosyllable words accounted for a minority, only 23, accounting for 1.9% of the total number of new words. Disyllable words have an absolute advantage, with a total of 737 words, accounting for 60.3%, which is more than half. At the same time, we also see the rapid development of three-syllable new words, which accounted for 30% of all new words in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China. Not only that, four-syllables and five-syllables words are also showing an increasing trend. There are 91 four-syllable words and 4 five-syllable words in the sorted new words, accounting for about 7.6%. The performance is consistent with the previous syllable rules, but disyllables no longer have an absolute advantage. In terms of the part of speech of new words in the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, on the one hand, the types of parts of speech are rich and comprehensive. In addition to common nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, distinguishing words, quantifiers, onomatopoeia, conjunctions, and numerals have also been developed; on the other hand, the distribution of parts of speech is unbalanced. Nouns have the largest number of new words, accounting for 73.2%, followed by verbs, followed by adjectives and adverbs, such as distinguishing words, quantifiers, onomatopoeias, conjunctions, and numerals developed slowly. Especially conjunctions and numerals are almost stagnant.
Finally, the characteristics of neologisms in this period are summarized: One is the modernity of neologisms. The neologism system at the end of the Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China has begun to belong to the modern category as a whole. Its neologisms include the attributes of "modernity", the modern continuity of new words, and the new ways of thinking that are all manifestations of modernity. The second is the foreignness of new words. The opening of trade ports，active business activities and the arrival of Western missionaries brought Chinese language into fundamental contact with other languages. It also injected Western elements into Chinese language. A large number of foreign transliterated words, free translation words, and borrowed words from the Japanese origin which acting as an intermediate station rider inject new vitality into the Chinese vocabulary system. The third is the confusion of new words, which is manifested in the uncertain number of syllables, inconsistencies in local words, irregular transliteration, parallelism of transliteration and free translation , parallelism of borrowed words and transliteration words, parallelism of local words and transliteration words, and parallelism of borrowed words and local words. The seven aspects of new words are in fact a transitional manifestation of the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China.
The third chapter is the types and characteristics of new words in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China.There are five main types of new words produced in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China：morpheme combined word creation, semantic conversion word creation, phonetic word creation, rhetoric word creation and word form transformation word creation. The morpheme combined word creation can be divided into a combination type and an additional type. The combination type can directly reflect the essence and essential characteristics of the referent, and the other is only a part of the essential characteristics. The main part of the additional type is the morpheme which can be a word, which represents with a certain conceptual meaning, the subordinate parts are mostly expressed as affixes and overlapping morphemes with modifiers that cannot be a word. What the semantic conversion of word creation is more special in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China is that many transliterated words about scientific terms were produced. Most of these transliterated words are expressed by old words, but they are not often used in ancient Chinese and have even withdrawn from the stage of history. In the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, the method of phonetic word creation was manifested in four aspects: onomatopoeia, transliteration, phonetic change, and expression. Among them, a large number of new words were created in the aspect of transliteration in the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic. Words are mostly expressed in chemical terms. At the end of Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, the rhetoric word creation was manifested in metaphor, metonymy, exaggeration, parody and quotation. At the end of the Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, most of the word form transformation methods were abbreviated and morpheme changed.
Finally, we explored the development and changes in the entire Chinese history based on the characteristics of word creation of the vocabulary in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, and summarized the historical development rules of Chinese language in terms of word creation: Morpheme combined taking a dominant position in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, looking at the history of Chinese vocabulary, morpheme combination is the main way to create new words at any time. The second is the increase in transliteration in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China. A large number of foreign words were produced in the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China. Therefore, transliteration of word creating played an important role in it. The creation of transliteration was fast and efficient, and there was no need to think too much about the meaning of the selected morphemes. There are not too many restrictions, it is in line with the characteristics of the historical period of the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China. The third is the continuation and development of rhetoric word creation. The rhetoric word creation of the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China mainly include five ways, metaphor, metonymy, exaggeration, parody, and quotation. Among them, metaphor and parody are the most prominent. Since ancient times, metaphor has been the most important way of rhetorical word creation. And the conditions required for the parody words creating are exactly what they met in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China. The mass production of modern Chinese parody words is the continuation of the performance of the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China. The characteristic of rhetoric performance highlights the continuation of history and the development of future.
The fourth chapter is the lexical structure of new words in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China.First of all, I will discuss the current research status of word formation in the academic world. The research on word formation has gone through a long stage from the initial form of word formation research to the current stage of using syntactic structure and other theoretical analysis of word formation. Now we can use more maturely word formation theory to analyzes the word formation of Chinese. The study of derivative words at the end of Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China is divided into derivative words composed of roots and typical affixes and derivative words composed of roots and affixoid. The study of compound words is divided into compound word structure and the relationship between compound word structure and part of speech in the new novels.
For the derivative words of the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, we must first determine the criteria for judging typical affixes: fixed position, morpheme adhesion, and meaninglessness. On this basis, this article sorted out three "prefixes + roots" , 25 "root + suffix" type derivative words in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China which including typical suffixes and overlapping affixes. Secondly, for atypical derived words, we must clarify the criteria for judging the affixoid: the incomplete blurring of the meaning of the word, the fixed and cohesive of the structure, and the analogous ability of the function. That is to say, the meaning of the word is in the complete and incomplete blurring, it is manifested in the assimilation or generalization of the meaning of the word; the structure is manifested in the fixed position and the adhesion to the substantive morpheme; the function is analogous, and it is productive on the basis of analogy. Based on the judging criteria of affixoid, in the research of this article, we found that six affixoid in the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China met the above-mentioned conditions, namely family, member, study, style, boundary, and property.
The compound words of the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China are relatively more complex, and the word formation of the polysyllabic words of each syllable is not consistent. For example, the structure of two-syllable compounds is diverse and complete, and the structure of three-syllable compounds is relatively fixed, which is concentrated in the verb-object formation, biased-positive formation and verb-complement formation. The basic structure of multi-syllable compound words is single, and most of them are biased-positive formation and parataxis, but individual vocabulary highlights the richness of structure. In addition, the word formation of compound words in the late Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China showed the characteristics of unbalanced distribution. Among them, the iased-positive formation was the most, which had the greatest advantage, accounting for 72.8%. Followed by the verb-object formation accounted for 12.4%, the parataxis accounted for 8.6%, the verb-complement formation accounted for 3.4%, the subject-predicate formation accounted for 1.6%, and the sequential formation accounted for at least 1.2%.
The word formation types of compound words are complex and diverse, and the relationship between the grammatical structure of compound words and the part of speech and internal part of speech is even more complicated. On the one hand, compound words with different structures are unevenly distributed in various parts of speech. On the other hand, although the word formation is the same and the part of speech is the same, the part of speech of the morphemes composed of these words is different. Through relevant statistics, we conclude that from the perspective of the morpheme properties of compound words, the part of speech of morphemes in the same part of speech morpheme group is roughly the same as that of the compound word; while for different part of speech morphemes, it is generally the same as that of the combined morpheme, and usually consistent with the part of speech of the central morpheme. From the perspective of the relationship between the word formation structure and part of speech of compound words, compound words are generally consistent with the part of speech of the important components in the word formation structure, and in the combination of internal morphemes, the important part of speech morphemes must occupy an important position in the combination.
The fifth chapter is Conclusion. This chapter mainly reviews and sorts out the contents and conclusions examined in each chapter, and makes a final summary.

목차 (Table of Contents)

• 1. 서론 1
• 1.1. 연구목적 1
• 1.2. 연구동향 9
• 1.3. 연구방법 24
• 2. 청말민초 시기 신조어의 양상 33
• 2.1. 신조어의 정의 34
• 2.2. 청말민초 신조어의 분류 38
• 2.2.1. 기원에 따른 분류 39
• 2.2.2. 새 어휘 형식 출현 여부에 따른 분류 48
• 2.2.3. 음절수에 따른 분류 58
• 2.2.4. 품사에 따른 분류 62
• 2.3. 청말민초 시기 신조어 사용의 특징 65
• 2.3.1. 현대성 66
• 2.3.2. 외래성 70
• 2.3.3. 혼란성 72
• 3. 청말민초 시기 어휘 생성의 유형과 특징 77
• 3.1. 청말민초 시기 어휘 생성의 유형 78
• 3.1.1. 형태소의 결합 78
• 3.1.2. 의미의 전환 81
• 3.1.3. 어음의 묘사 및 변환 83
• 3.1.4. 수사법의 적용 86
• 3.1.5. 어휘 형식의 축약 90
• 3.2 청말민초 시기 신조어 생성의 특징 91
• 3.2.1. 음역에 의한 어휘 생성의 증가 92
• 3.2.2. 수사에 의한 어휘 생성의 증가 93
• 4. 청말민초 신조어의 어휘구조 96
• 4.1. 파생어의 어휘구조 98
• 4.1.1. 전형적인 접사로 구성된 파생어 98
• 4.1.2. 유사접사로 구성된 파생어 103
• 4.2 청말민초 시기 합성어의 어휘구조 116
• 4.2.1. 청말민초 시기 합성어 어휘구조의 양상 116
• 4.2.2. 합성어의 어휘구조와 품사와의 관계 122
• 4.2.3. 합성어의 어휘구조 양상에 대한 통계 및 분석 134
• 5. 결론 147
• 부록(1) 청말민초 신조어 각종 일람표 150
• 부록(2) 《한어대사전》 누락 및 오류 어휘 일람표 162
• 참고문헌 169
• 요약문 176
• Abstract 181