While young students often have difficulty learning the topic of time, it is relatively recent that efforts for attempts to identify this difficulty and its features have begun to be documented. Reading the time on an analog clock in various ways requ...
While young students often have difficulty learning the topic of time, it is relatively recent that efforts for attempts to identify this difficulty and its features have begun to be documented. Reading the time on an analog clock in various ways requires not only an understanding of temporal quantities that reflect a different base –N numeral system and their relation, but also an understanding of a tool that represents multiple quantities that overlapped each other by number line metaphor. It is special that these two understandings are not serial things, but dialectical union things. Three independent but related studies in this thesis consider the teaching and learning of time-telling. Drawing on the observations of ordinary mathematics classrooms in Korea, the three papers explore how teachers teach time-telling, how students read time, and how tools for telling time mediate this teaching and learning. This thesis aims to explore the potentiality of the field of teaching and learning of time-telling as a result of enhancing the comprehensive understanding of the phenomena by applying theory from various angles to the field.
The first paper investigates Korean students’ ways of reading relative time. A total of 126 Korean students in grade 2 participated in a comprehension test involving clock reading for absolute and relative times. The quantitative results showed that the students had lower performance on relative time-reading tasks than on absolute time-reading tasks. By conducting eye-tracking examinations with 10 focal students, I inferred the referenced image schemas that the students used when they read relative time based on the eye-mind hypothesis. The qualitative analysis revealed that Korean students read relative time in unique manners, which may cause errors in their relative time-reading. These findings suggest that one of the Korean students’ difficulties in reading relative time was based on linguistic characteristics and the learning sequence of time-related content.
The second paper offers an account of ways in which the metaphors used by teachers serve as a lens for providing a better understanding of relative time teaching in the elementary mathematics classroom. I observed ordinary relative time instruction by six elementary school teachers. Four relative time metaphors—temporal, directional, actional, and dimensional—were identified that emerged in every instruction I observed and the relationships among the metaphors. The teachers used relative time metaphors in particular ways related to the intrinsic nature of mathematics and the linguistic characteristics of the specific language. These findings highlight two cultural patterns at work in the mathematics classroom. This analysis and interpretation illuminate aspects of the cultural characteristics of mathematics teaching.
The final paper investigates opportunities to manipulate clocks provided by teachers and the effects of these opportunities on students’ performance in positioning clock hands. I considered how elementary teachers enacted two analog clocks that differed regarding the connectivity of the two hands. I observed 18 lessons on time taught by six teachers and administered a test of time understanding before and after the lessons to the student participants (n = 109) who belonged to the classes of the participating teachers. A qualitative analysis of the six teachers’ instruction revealed that the enacted tools differentially mediated their teaching, which resulted in students being provided with different opportunities to access covariational reasoning. A quantitative analysis of the students’ performance on clock hand positioning tasks by the teacher group and the assigned tool showed that the assigned tool-using opportunities differentially mediated students’ thinking as the students positioned the clock hands. These findings suggest that pedagogical attention to the enactment of various clocks with a focus on the clock properties is needed to promote students’ conceptual understandings of time.
The overarching investigations of these three studies have the following implications. First is that they provide an in-depth understanding of the teaching and learning of time, which our research community has been lacked, by conducting empirical research. The findings highlight the interplay of language and time ideas by focusing on the relation between Korean and the teaching and learning of time. Second, they provide specific ideas to support students’ time-telling. A new way of diagnosing students’ errors in time-telling was introduced, teachers’ various efforts for students’ conceptual understanding of time were reported, and how students’ experiences of clock manipulating can attribute to their problem-solving of time was revealed. Finally, by uncovering time-telling, time-telling instruction, and the mediating role of tools for connecting the two, this thesis has implications in that it is a multifaceted study that traced interplay of the teaching, learning, and tool’s mediation that happens in the mathematics classroom.