초등 저학년 일반아동과 발달성 난독아동의 이해모니터링 능력 = Text comprehension monitoring of Korean early elementary students with and without developmental dyslexia

국문 초록 (Abstract)

배경 및 목적:
발달성 난독아동은 음운인식, 해독, 읽기유창성 등 다양한 영역에서 어려움이 나타난다. 최근 들어 발달성 난독아동을 대상으로 해독 능력 이외에 텍스트 수준에서의 이해와 상위인지 전략 활용을 살펴보는 연구가 진행되고 있다. 이는 읽기의 최종 목표가 텍스트의 의미를 온전히 이해하는 데 있음을 확인한 결과이다. 그런데 발달성 난독아동은 글자해독을 어느 정도 습득한 뒤에도, 읽기이해 과정에서 낮은 이해모니터링 능력을 보일 가능성이 있다. 이해모니터링은 읽기이해에서 고차원적 인지기술로서 중요한 역할을 하며, 읽기이해의 중요한 예측 인자이다. 그러나 기존 연구는 주로 해독이나 읽기유창성에 초점을 맞추었으며, 텍스트 수준에서의 이해모니터링을 다룬 연구는 여전히 제한적이다. 따라서 본 연구는 초등 2-3학년 발달성 난독아동에게 짧은 글을 듣거나 읽게 한 후, 이해모니터링 능력을 살펴보고자 한다. 발달성 난독아동이 텍스트 내에서 발생하는 어휘, 외적, 내적 비일관성 유형의 오류를 얼마나 탐지하고 수정하는지, 학년일치 일반아동과 해독점수일치 일반아동과 비교하여 차이를 살펴보고자 한다.

연구방법:
초등학교 2-3학년 일반아동과 발달성 난독아동 각각 11명, 발달성 난독아동과 해독점수를 일치시킨 1학년 일반아동 11명 총 33명을 대상으로 하였다. 짧은 글을 듣거나 읽고 오류가 있는지 탐지한 후 수정할 기회를 제공하였다. 짧은 글은 초등 저학년에게 친숙한 주제(예: 생일파티, 할아버지와 함께 병원가기, 호랑이와 토끼, 우리 집 소개하기 등)로 어휘를 쉽게 조절하여 제작하였다. 본 연구에서 이해모니터링 과제로 사용한 텍스트의 구성, 내용, 어휘 및 길이가 초등 저학년 아동에게 적절한지, 어휘 비일관성 유형, 내적 비일관성 유형, 외적 비일관성 유형이 적절한지에 대한 내용 타당도는 언어병리학 박사학위 소지자이며, 한국 난독증 협회 문해 전문가 과정 슈퍼바이저인
3인에게 의뢰하여, 평균 내용타당도를 산출한 결과 4.629이었다. 순서 효과를 배제하기 위해 연구대상자를 두 그룹으로 나누어 1/2은 듣기를 먼저 하고, 1/2은 읽기를 먼저 실시하였다. 아동들에게 주제가 다른 16개의 텍스트를 준비하여 A세트와 B세트로 나누어 구성하였다. 각 세트에는 어휘 비일관성 유형, 내적 비일관성 유형, 외적 비일관성 유형의 개수를 동일하게 포함하였다. 또, 본 연구의 이해모니터링 과제를 이해 모드에 따라 듣거나 읽어준 후 과제를 수행하게 하였다. 3개의 이해모니터링 유형(어휘 비일관성/내적 비일관성/외적 비일관성)을 포함한 이야기글, 설명글 16개를 듣고 읽으면서 오류를 찾는 탐지 과제와 탐지한 오류를 수정하는 수정 과제를 실시하였다.

연구결과:
첫째, 발달성 난독아동과 해독점수일치 일반아동이 학년일치 일반아동에 비해 이해모니터링 능력에서 유의하게 낮은 수행력을 보였다. 둘째, 아동들은 오류 탐지 과제보다 오류 수정 과제에서 더 낮은 수행력을 보였다. 셋째, 어휘 비일관성, 내적 비일관성, 외적 비일관성의 이해모니터링을 유형별로 살펴보았을 때, 학년일치 일반아동이 발달성 난독아동과 해독점수일치 일반아동보다 유의하게 높은 수행력을 보였다. 세 집단 모두 외적 비일관성 유형에서 가장 우수한 수행력을 보였고, 뒤이어 어휘 비일관성 유형과 내적 비일관성 유형 순으로 나타났다.

결론 및 논의:
발달성 난독아동은 듣기와 읽기 과제 모두에서 학년일치 일반아동보다 유의미하게 낮은 이해모니터링 능력을 보였다. 이는 텍스트를 이해 과정에서 자신의 이해 상태를 점검하고, 수정하는 상위인지적 기술에 어려움이 있음을 시사한다. 특히, 발달성 난독아동은 텍스트 내 불일치 정보를 탐지하고 수정하는 상위인지적 전략을 능동적으로 활용하지 못하는 모습이 확인되었다. 이들은 과제 지시를 통해 오류 가능성을 미리 안내받았음에도 전략을 실행하는 데 어려움을 겪어 낮은 수행을 보이는 경향이 있었다. 이러한 결과는 발달성 난독아동의 낮은 수행력이 상위인지적 전략 활용의 미숙함과 밀접하게 관련되어 있음을 시사한다. 발달성 난독아동이 텍스트를 이해하는 과정에서
이해모니터링 능력을 적극적으로 지원해야 할 필요성을 강조한다.
본 연구에서는 이해 모드(듣기 vs 읽기)에 따른 유의미한 주효과는 유의하지 않았으며, 집단 간 상호작용 효과도 나타나지 않았다. 이는 발달성 난독아동이 듣기와 읽기 두 모드에서 모두 낮은 이해모니터링 능력을 보였음을 시사한다. 기존 연구에서는 듣기 이해가 읽기 이해보다 상대적으로 높게 보고되었으나, 본 연구에서는 발달성 난독아동이 듣기와 읽기 두 모드 모두에서 학년일치 일반아동보다 낮은 수행을 보였다. 이러한 결과는 발달성 난독아동의 언어적·인지적 자원 부족이 특정 모드뿐만 아니라, 전반적인 언어 처리과정에서 나타날 수 있음을 의미한다. 특히 발달성 난독아동에게는 읽기 능력을 우선적으로 지원해야 할 필요가 크다. 읽기는 학교 학습과 문해 능력의 핵심적인 요소로서, 학업 성취에 결정적인 역할을 미친다. 발달성 난독아동은 낮은 해독 능력으로 인해 읽기 이해에서 시작된 어려움이 학습 전반으로 이어질 수 있으므로, 읽기 능력을 집중적으로 지원할 필요가 있다.
과제 유형별 분석에서는 오류 수정 과제보다 오류 탐지 과제에서 전반적으로 높은 수행 점수를 보였다. 이는 오류 탐지가 비교적 단순한 인지 과정을 요구하지만, 오류 수정은 추론 능력과 작업기억, 문맥 이해 등 고차원적인 인지 처리가 필요하기 때문이다. 발달성 난독아동은 오류 수정 과제에서 특히 더 큰 어려움을 겪으며, 이는 작업기억 용량의 제한과 상위인지 전략 활용이 미숙하기 때문으로 보인다.
발달성 난독아동은 모든 이해 모니터링 유형(외적 비일관성, 어휘 비일관성, 내적 비일관성)에서 학년일치 일반아동보다 낮은 수행력을 보였다. 특히, 내적 비일관성 유형에서의 점수가 가장 낮게 나타났다. 이는 텍스트 앞뒤의 맥락을 연결하고 의미적 일관성을 유지하는 능력이 부족했기 때문으로 해석된다. 어휘 비일관성 유형에서는 어휘 지식 한계로 텍스트의 구체적 의미를 정확히 파악하기 어려웠고, 외적 비일관성 유형에서는 배경지식을 활용하는 데 어려움을 보였다. 이러한 결과는 발달성 난독아동이 텍스트 내 의미 통합과 연결성을 지속하는 데 필요한 언어적·인지적 자원이 제한적임을 시사한다.

제언:
본 연구는 제한된 표본 수(N=33)와 특정 학년(2학년, 3학년)을 중심으로 진행된 연구이기 때문에, 결과를 일반화하기에는 한계가 있다. 따라서 추후 연구에서는 다양한 학년과 더 큰 규모의 표본을 대상으로 이해모니터링 능력을 분석할 필요가 있다. 이해모니터링 능력은 연령에 따라 차이가 나타날 수 있으므로, 종단적 연구를 통해 그 발달 추이를 추적하는 것이 매우 중요하다. 또 연구대상을 저학년, 중학년, 고학년으로 확대하여, 각 학년별 발달상의 특성을 체계적으로 평가하는 연구가 필요하다. 일반적으로 발달성 난독아동은 또래 수준과 비슷한 듣기이해 능력을 지닌다고 가정된다. 하지만 듣기이해 모니터링이 학년일치 일반아동보다 낮은 수행을 보인 결과는 예상 밖이었다. 본 연구에서 듣기이해 모니터링 특성을 다양하게 살피지는 못했기 때문에, 낮은 수준의 듣기이해 모니터링 결과를 깊이 있게 해석하는 데에는 한계가 있다. 따라서 후속 연구에서는 다양한 예측 변인들을 심층적으로 평가해 살펴볼 것을 제안한다. 또한 집단별로 이해모니터링 반응 속도를 비교함으로써, 인지처리 속도나 작업기억 용량의 차이를 살펴보는 따른 차이를 살피는 후속 연구가 필요하다. 오류 유형에 대한 질적 분석을 통해 각 집단의 특정 오류 유형에 대한 반응 차이를 살펴보는 것도 발달성 난독아동의 특성을 좀더 명확하게 파악할 수 있다. 이러한 후속 연구가 이루어진다면, 발달성 난독아동의 이해모니터링 능력을 향상시키는 데 중요한 기여를 할 수 있을 것이다.

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

Background and Purpose: Developmental dyslexia is characterized by persistent difficulties in phonological awareness, decoding, and reading fluency. Recent studies on developmental dyslexia have examined text-level comprehension and higher-order metacognitive strategy usage, reflecting the view that the ultimate goal of reading is full comprehension of textual meaning. Even after acquiring basic decoding skills, children with developmental dyslexia may exhibit lower comprehension-monitoring abilities—an important higher-order cognitive skill for reading comprehension. However, previous research has primarily focused on decoding or reading fluency, with relatively few studies examining comprehension monitoring at the text level. Therefore, the present study investigated comprehension-monitoring skills in 2nd- and 3rd-grade children with developmental dyslexia, both in listening and reading tasks. Specifically, we compared the extent to which children detected and corrected word-, external-, and internal-inconsistency errors within short texts, in comparison with age-matched typically developing children and those with matching decoding scores.

Methods: A total of 33 elementary school children participated: 11 age-matched typically developing children (Grade 2–3), 11 children with developmental dyslexia (Grade 2–3), and 11 decoding-score-matched children (Grade 1). Participants listened to or read short texts containing word-inconsistency, external-inconsistency, and internal-inconsistency errors, and were asked to detect errors and then correct them. The texts were thematically relevant to lower elementary students (e.g., birthday parties, visiting the hospital with a grandparent, a story about a tiger and a rabbit, describing one’s home), with simplified vocabulary and adjusted lengths to ensure content validity for young learners.
To counterbalance possible order effects, half of the participants performed the listening task first, while the other half began with the reading task. Texts were organized into two sets (A and B), each containing the same number of each error type (word-, external-, internal-inconsistency). Children were then assessed in each comprehension mode and each type of inconsistency through detection and correction tasks.

Results: Children with developmental dyslexia and decoding-matched typically developing children showed significantly lower comprehension-monitoring abilities compared to the age-matched typically developing group.
Across all participants, performance in error detection tasks was higher than in error correction tasks.
Regarding the three error types (external, word, internal inconsistency), age-matched typically developing children outperformed the other two groups on all types. All groups found external-inconsistency errors the easiest to detect and correct, followed by word-inconsistency errors, then internal-inconsistency errors, which were the most challenging.

Conclusions and Discussion: Children with developmental dyslexia displayed significantly lower comprehension-monitoring abilities than their age-matched peers in both reading and listening tasks, suggesting difficulties with higher-order metacognitive skills for evaluating and revising their understanding. Notably, even when informed that errors might exist, participants with developmental dyslexia struggled to execute the necessary strategies to detect and correct them. This finding implies that their lower performance may be closely associated with immature higher-order strategy use. The study highlights the importance of supporting comprehension-monitoring skills in children with developmental dyslexia, including error detection and correction, across both reading and listening modalities.
No main effect or interaction effect was found regarding the comprehension mode (listening vs. reading), indicating that children with developmental dyslexia performed poorly on comprehension monitoring in both modes. Although previous research often suggests that listening comprehension might be comparatively stronger for these children, our results showed they were behind age-matched peers in both modes. This finding implies that limited linguistic and cognitive resources are not confined to one specific mode, but rather manifest across overall language-processing tasks. Especially for developmental dyslexia, strengthening reading abilities and reading comprehension is crucial, as reading is central to academic success. Difficulties in decoding can spread to broader learning processes over time, underscoring the need for focused reading intervention.
Moreover, the children generally found error correction more challenging than error detection, likely because correction relies on higher-order cognitive processes—such as inference, working memory, and contextual understanding. This challenge was most apparent in internal-inconsistency errors, where children must integrate preceding and following contexts to maintain semantic coherence. Word-inconsistency errors exposed vocabulary limitations, while external-inconsistency errors revealed the struggle to utilize background knowledge. These patterns suggest that children with developmental dyslexia have restricted linguistic and cognitive resources for integrating text meaning and maintaining coherence.

Recommendations: A relatively small sample (N=33) and a focus on specific grades (2nd and 3rd) limit the generalizability of the results; thus, caution is needed when interpreting the findings. Future studies should explore a wider range of grades with larger samples to track how comprehension monitoring develops across different age levels. Given that listening comprehension was unexpectedly low for children with developmental dyslexia, more refined measures—incorporating multiple predictive variables—are necessary to fully interpret the causes of their challenges in listening modes. Investigating reaction times, working memory capacity, and qualitative analysis of error types could help clarify the specific patterns these children exhibit, potentially leading to more tailored interventions that strengthen comprehension monitoring and reading comprehension in developmental dyslexia.



Keywords: comprehension monitoring, developmental dyslexia, comprehension mode(listening mode, reading mode), error detection, error correction, lexical inconsistency, external inconsistency, internal inconsistency

목차 (Table of Contents)

• 목
• 차
• Ⅰ. 서론·············································································································································· 1
• 1. 연구의 필요성 및 목적············································································································· 1
• 2. 연구 문제····································································································································· 5
• Ⅱ. 이론적 배경································································································································ 6
• 1. 발달성 난독증의 읽기 발달····································································································· 6
• 1) 음운인식··································································································································· 6
• 2) 해독 및 읽기 유창성············································································································· 7
• 3) 텍스트 이해····························································································································· 8
• (1) 읽기이해····························································································································· 8
• (2) 듣기이해··························································································································· 10
• 2. 이해모니터링····························································································································· 11
• 1) 일반적인 발달······················································································································· 11
• 2) 발달성 난독 아동의 이해모니터링··················································································· 12
• 3) 특정언어장애(SLI)와 언어학습장애(LLD) 아동의 이해모니터링······························ 13
• Ⅲ. 연구방법···································································································································· 14
• 1. 연구대상····································································································································· 14
• 2. 연구도구 및 분석····················································································································· 16
• 3. 연구절차····································································································································· 22
• 4. 자료분석····································································································································· 23
• 5. 채점신뢰도································································································································· 27
• 6. 통계············································································································································· 27
• Ⅳ. 연구결과···································································································································· 28
• 1. 집단과 이해 모드에 따른 이해모니터링 능력··································································· 28
• 2. 집단(학년일치 일반, 발달성 난독, 해독점수일치 일반)과 과제 유형(탐지, 수정)에
• 따른 이해모니터링 능력··········································································································· 30
• 3. 집단(학년일치 일반, 발달성 난독, 해독점수일치 일반)과 이해모니터링 오류 유형
• (어휘, 내적, 외적)에 따른 이해모니터링 능력 ··································································· 32
• Ⅴ. 결론 및 논의···························································································································· 35
• Ⅵ. 제언············································································································································ 42
• 참고 문헌··········································································································································· 44
• Abstact ············································································································································ 57
• <부록1> 이해모니터링 과제 예시······························································································ 60