10-12세기 고려의 대외전쟁과 군제 변화 : 군인전(軍人田)의 성립과 변동을 중심으로

오치훈 고려대학교 아세아문제연구원 2025 아세아연구 Vol.68 No.4

본 논문은 10-12세기 고려의 대외전쟁을 군사제도 변화의 촉매로 보고, 군인 선발 및 군호 운영에 직결된 군인전(軍人田)의 성립과 변동을 중심으로 고려 전기 국가 운영과 사회 구조에 미친 함의를 조명한다. 거란과의 전쟁(993~1019) 이후, 군인전은 역분전을 시원으로 하여 전시과를 통해 중앙군 직업군인의 전정연립(田丁連立) 제도로 안정화되었으며, 군역의 안정적 확보와 군호의 생계 수단을 보장하여 국가 체제 안정에 결정적 역할을 했다. 반면, 여진과의 전쟁(1104년 이후)에서는 기존 군제의 한계가 드러나 문무산관부터 상인, 승려까지 동원하는 별무반과 같은 파격적인 군사 동원이 이루어졌는데, 이는 재정 악화와 병력 부족 등 군인전 운영의 균열이 심화되었음을 보여준다. 결론적으로, 고려의 대외전쟁은 기존 연구에서 소홀히 다루어졌던 군사제도 변혁, 특히 군인전 제도 정비 및 변동의 주요 동인이었음을 밝히고자 한다. This study examines the foreign wars of the Goryeo dynasty (10th–12th centuries) as a catalyst for military reform, focusing on the establishment and transformation of the Guninjeon (Soldiers’ Land) system. After the wars with the Khitan (993–1019), the Guninjeon, derived from the Yeokbunjeon (Merit Land), was stabilized through the Jeonsigwa (Land Distribution System) as a Land-and-Man-Linked (Jeonjeong Yeollip, 田丁連立) system for professional soldiers. This reform secured stable military manpower, guaranteed soldiers’ livelihoods, and strengthened the state’s institutional foundation. By contrast, the war with the Jurchen (after 1104) exposed the limits of this structure. Large-scale mobilization through the Byeolmuban (Special Military Unit)—including officials, merchants, and monks—revealed financial strain, manpower shortages, and the weakening of the Guninjeon operation. Ultimately, this study argues that Goryeo’s foreign wars were a decisive driving force in the transformation of its military institutions, particularly through the reorganization of the Guninjeon system, which has been undervalued in previous scholarship.

고려전기 군인전의 성립과 대거란 전쟁의 영향

오치훈 한국중세사학회 2022 한국중세사연구 Vol.- No.68

In the Goryeo Dynasty, there was a full-time soldier who was paid a salary called Guninjeon(軍人田). They inherited their duties as soldiers and Guninjeon to their descendants or relatives in the way of Jeonjeongyeollip(田丁連立). Since this method of succession of military service is very unique, several researchers have been interested and conducting research so far. This paper was written to argue that the war between Goryeo and Khitan influenced the creation of Guninjeon and Jeonjeongyeollip. The Goryeo-Khitan War started in 993 and ended with the Battle of Gwiju in 1019. Due to the war that lasted for about 30 years, problems such as securing armaments and treatment of the dead were highlighted. In the process of resolving the aforementioned problems, Guninjeon was gradually established. As a result, Jeonjeongyeollip and Gubunjeon(口分田) were prepared. Jeonjeongyeollip is a system in which soldiers pass on land(salary) along with their service obligations to descendants or relatives. Gubunjeon was the land paid to the bereaved family when a soldier who had no descendants or relatives died. In this way, the Goryeo Dynasty was able to secure soldiers and improve their treatment. In summary, Guninjeon in Goryeo has changed little by little over a long period of time. There are many factors for the change, but the war between Goryeo and Khitan was the most direct factor. 고려왕조에는 군인전을 지급받는 전업군인이 존재하였다. 이들은 소위 전정연립이라는 방식으로 군인의 직역과 군인전을 자손친족에게 계승하였다. 이와 같은 군인의 직역 계승 방식은 매우 독특한 것이므로 지금까지 여러 연구자들이 관심을 갖고 연구를 진행해 왔다. 이 글은 이러한 군인전의 운영 방식이 정립되는 과정에서 거란과의 전쟁이 적지 않은 영향을 미쳤음을 논증하기 위해 작성되었다. 고려-거란 전쟁은 993년 처음 발발한 이후 1019년 귀주대첩을 끝으로 종결되었다. 대략 30년 가까이 지속된 전쟁으로 인하여 군액의 확보와 전몰자에 대한 대우 등의 문제가 부각되었으며, 이러한 문제를 해결해 나가는 과정에서 고려의 군인전은 점차 정비되어 나갔다. 그 결과 군호가 직역과 함께 토지를 계승하는 전정연립제도 및 군호의 처우를 개선하고 직역 단절에 대비하기 위한 구분전 지급 방안도 마련되었다. 이처럼 고려의 군인전은 오랜 시간에 걸쳐서 조금씩 변화하였다. 변화의 동인은 여러 가지가 있겠으나 거란과의 전쟁이 무엇보다 직접적인 요인이었다.

합성변수가 LiNiO2 의 전기화학적 특성에 미치는 영향

오치훈,김범수,고영옥,이철태 ( C . H . Oh,B . S . Kim,Y . O . Ko,C . T . Lee ) 한국공업화학회 1998 응용화학 Vol.2 No.1

The specific capacity and cycle life performance of LiNiO₂ depend not only on its crystal structure but also its powder microstructure, which is very sensitive to the synthesis conditions. In other to achieve good electrochemical characteristics, synthesis procedures and conditions must be carefully selected and optimized. Therefore, this study was investigated the effect of synthetic variables on the electrochemical characteristics of LiNiO₂.

고려시대 세금 감면 어휘의 용례와 의미

오치훈 한국중세사학회 2020 한국중세사연구 Vol.0 No.63

Looking at "The History of Goryeo(高麗史)," countless tax cut articles have been identified, raising questions about how the finances could have been managed. Indeed, did fiscal income reach a certain level every year during the Goryeo Dynasty without much fluctuation? If not, how did they manage their finances during the Goryeo Dynasty? This paper began with such a simple problem consciousness, and tries to understand the tax reduction data, which has been studied from the perspective of welfare policy, in terms of financial operation. First of all, data from the Goryeo Dynasty were examined to find the vocabulary for tax reduction, and then the representative vocabulary was analyzed to understand its meaning. As a result, we came to the following conclusion. During the Goryeo Dynasty, terms such as 蠲, 減, 免, 放, 除, 輕, 復, 賜, 蠲免, 蠲減, 蠲放, 蠲除折放, 全放, 全除, 放除, 減除 used in relation to tax reduction. The most frequently used terms are 蠲, 減, 免, 放, 蠲免, accounting for 90 percent of the total cases. These terms also meant reducing some of the taxes, but most of them meant exempting them. Exemptions did not mean that a portion of the tax should be reduced to pay less, but that there was nothing to pay. Until now, these terms have been interpreted as reducing taxes without clear standards, but it is more accurate to interpret them as exemptions. Based on this, the government will conduct research ranging from the reasons and procedures for future tax cuts to financial management to reveal the characteristics of Goryeo society more clearly.

12) PACS Workstation Monitor의 이해

오치훈 대한방사선사협회 1999 대한방사선사협회지 Vol.25 No.1

고려시대 山林政策에 대한 기초적 검토- 산림정책의 推移를 중심으로 -

오치훈 한국사학회 2019 史學硏究 Vol.0 No.133

In the premodern society, all the living necessities such as wood and other forest products for heating, cooking, and building materials were obtained from forests. The country was interested in the use of these forest resources. In the Goryeo period, a forest policy based on the idea of Feng Shui and the Confucian nature was carried out. This was a protection aspect for the utilization of forest resources, but it was ideal rather than legal aspect. Goryeo’s forest policy continued in a similar way, following the implementation of the Monthly Ordinance(月令) by Confucian political ideology of King Sungjong(成宗) and the ban on the protection of King Hyeonjong(顯宗). Since the 12th century, the scarcity of forest resources has been increasing due to the expansion of agricultural lands, and measures have been taken to plant trees and ban forests. However, since the military regime(武臣政權), forest degradation and monopolization of forest use have increased. The reason for this is that military rulers(武臣執政) has begun to increase the amount of construction projects and the forest usage has increased rapidly before and after the war with Mongolia and the relocation of the capital. Under the Mongolian rule, a large amount of forest resources were used for the two times conquests of Japan, and the plundering of wood by Mongolia was severe. The monopoly of forests became more serious in the late Goryeo period. The monopoly was prohibited and punished, but it was not a fundamental measure. In this situation, Jeonsigwa(田柴科) which supplied siji(柴地), collapsed and the supply of forest resources through the receipt of Gongbu(貢賦; tribute and taxation) and So(所) was not smooth. In the end, Goryeo’s forest policy did not prevent the monopoly of forests, and this situation forced a new dynasty to be established and resolved. 전근대사회에서 난방, 취사, 건축 자재에 소요되는 목재와 기타 임산물 등 생활필수품은 모두 산림에서 구하였으며, 이러한 산림 자원의 이용에 국가가 관심을 기울이고 있었다. 고려시대에는 풍수지리 관념과 유교적 자연관에 바탕을 둔 산림정책이 실시되었으며, 이는 산림자원의 활용을 위한 보호의 측면도 있으나 법률적이기 보다는 관념적인 면이 작용한 것이었다. 고려의 산림정책은 성종대 유교정치이념에 의한 「月令」의 준수, 현종대 산림보호에 관한 禁令의 실시 이후 대개 유사한 방식으로 지속되었다. 12세기 이후 개간의 확대 등으로 산림 자원의 희소성이 보다 높아지는 가운데 식재와 송충이 피해 방지, 산림의 사점 금지 등 조처가 내려졌다. 그러나 무신정권 이후 산림의 훼손과 산림 이용의 독점 현상이 증가하였다. 무신집정에 의해 무분별한 영선 사업이 늘어났고 몽골과의 전쟁과 강화 천도를 전후로 산림 이용이 급증하였기 때문이다. 元의 지배아래서 두 차례 이루어진 일본 원정에 막대한 산림자원이 소요되었으며 元에 의한 목재의 수탈도 심하였다. 고려후기 산림의 私占 현상은 더욱 심각해졌다. 사점을 금지하고 처벌하였으나 근본적인 대책이 되지 못하였다. 이러한 상황에서 시지를 공급하던 전시과도 붕괴되었으며 貢賦의 수취와 所를 통한 산림자원의 공급도 원활하지 못하였다. 결국 고려의 산림정책은 산림의 사점을 막지 못하였고, 이는 새 왕조가 들어서면서 해결할 수밖에 없는 상황으로 전개되었다.

이규보를 통해 본 고려 관인의 경제생활 -선물 수수를 중심으로-

오치훈 한국중세사학회 2019 한국중세사연구 Vol.0 No.59

We looked at the economic life of an official in the Goryeo Dynasty through the examples of gifts recorded in the book “Donggukyisanggukjip(東國李相國集)” by Lee Gyu-Bo(李奎報: 1168-1241). The gifts he received are confirmed 53 cases in about 50 years from 1193 to his death in 1241. Broken down by a certain time frame, there were 14 cases during the 17 years before taking office(1190-1207), 13 cases during the 30 years since taking office(1207-1237), and 26 cases during the four years since retirement(1237-1241). Time and frequency of gifts indicate that gifts have been concentrated since retirement. As gifts, there were various items such as alcohol and fruits, rice, fisheries products, meat, vegetables, ice, medicine, heating supplies and clothing, and in terms of the ratio, food items consumed on a daily basis account for 72 percent. Among the groceries, fruits and alcohol were the most abundant, especially alcohol, which Lee Gyu-Bo liked very much. Lee received gifts mainly from officials and monks, who often had only temporary exchanges, but also maintained a special relationship with each other. Gifts at the time are made public and customary, making it difficult to distinguish them from favors or bribes. In severe cases, the demand for gifts can also be seen, which is different from today's exchange of gifts. Meanwhile, Lee was able to exchange gifts on Ganghwa(江華島) because logistics transportation was possible due to the development of the distribution economy. Various items were being transported from the provinces to Ganghwado Island, which served as an aid to the economic life of government officials such as Lee Gyu-Bo.

시(詩)·문(文)을 통해 고려인들의 마음 엿보기 -김인호 저, 『고려시대 사람들의 사유와 집단 심성』 (혜안, 2017)-

오치훈 한국중세사학회 2019 한국중세사연구 Vol.0 No.56

리튬이차전지용 정극활물질인 LiNiO2 의 합성 및 전기화학적 특성

오치훈,김범수,고영옥,이철태 한국공업화학회 1997 한국공업화학회 연구논문 초록집 Vol.1997 No.0

폐기물 EAF dust 로부터 회수된 아연성분의 유화형 액막법에 의한 분리

오치훈,황재석,이철태 ( Chi Hon Oh,Jai Suk Hwang,Chul Tae Lee ) 한국공업화학회 1995 한국공업화학회 연구논문 초록집 Vol.1994 No.1