광야에서 유랑하는 위기의 갈라디아 교회 ― 갈라디아 교회의 서사 위치로서의 광야 ―

김선욱 (재)대한성서공회 성경원문연구소 2019 성경원문연구 Vol.0 No.45

The word “wilderness” never appears in Galatians. In Galatians, however, images and themes from exodus emerge in several places, and some of them contain the implications of the wilderness. Paul makes an analogy between the Israelites in exodus and the churches in Galatia. As the Israelites who escaped from Egypt complained in the wilderness and attempted to return to Egypt albeit becoming slaves, the Galatians were likewise in that they heard the gospel preached by Paul and had faith but then followed the instructions of false teachers and degraded to becoming slaves of the law. Paul looks upon the serious crisis of the Galatians by recalling the Israelites who rebelled in the wilderness. In Paul’s mind, the churches in Galatia are straying like the people of Israel who wandered in the wilderness as they try to follow a different gospel. The narrative location of Galatians therefore is the wilderness. In this paper, I discover the images and themes of exodus that reflect the wilderness in Galatians, and explore the state of crisis the churches of Galatia were in by comparing it with Israel’s wanderings in the wilderness. In doing so, I present the theological meanings of the wilderness in Galatians. First, I examine the characteristics of wilderness through the generations. The wilderness has both positive and negative characteristics, namely as a place of test and hope. In the Qumran Literature and the Gospels, the wilderness serves not just as a background but also as the subject of fulfillment in the eschatological and typological dimensions. Paul however presents the wilderness as a place of warning and lesson in connection with wilderness wanderings of the Israelites. The churches of Galatia show the apostasy of abandoning the gospel preached by Paul by following a different gospel, just as the people of Israel apostatized by serving the golden calf in the wilderness. The Israelites who complained about having no food or water in the wilderness tried to go back to Egypt, which meant that they would become slaves of Egypt. Likewise, the churches of Galatia are discarding Paul’s teachings and following the false teachers’ instructions, which implies that they will become slaves of the law. However, as the Israelites desired for the promised land flowing with milk and honey, the churches of Galatia should long for the inheritance of the kingdom of God. In addition, as in the parable of Hagar and Sarah, the churches of Galatia which belong to “Mount Sinai in Arabia” and “the present Jerusalem” should not remain in the wilderness but receive the inheritance of the kingdom of God by belonging to “the Jerusalem above”. In other words, the Galatians must leave the wilderness and enter the promised land. To the churches of Galatia that are narratively located in the wilderness, Paul warns that they must not go back to being slaves of the law by following the teachings of false teachers. At the same time, he urges that they should go ahead with the hope of the promised inheritance according to the gospel of liberty.

신앙인의 영적 전투: 마가에 따른 예수광야시험의 독특성을 중심으로

윤영민 ( Yoon Young Min ) 한국복음주의신학회 2017 성경과신학 Vol.84 No.-

본고는 마가에 따른 예수의 광야 시험의 독특성을 연구한다. 공관복음서들 중에서 마가의 예수 광야 시험 사건은 대다수의 교부들, 종교개혁자들, 그리고 현대 신학자들에 의해 지금까지 소홀히 다루어져 왔다. 그 주된 이유는 마가의 광야 시험 기사(막 1:12-13)가 다른 두 복음서인 마 4:1-11과 눅 4:1-13에 비해 훨씬 짧게 기록되었을 뿐만 아니라, 예수와 사탄과의 세 부분의 대화도 없기 때문이다. 따라서 마가가 기록한 예수의 광야 시험 사건은 마태와 마가가 기록한 시험 사건의 파편이거나 축약으로 이해되고 있다. 또한 마가의 기사는 “시험안의 예수”의 기록이기 보다, 예수가 광야에 사십 일 동안 있었다는 “광야안의 예수”로 무시되고 있으며, 예수 시험의 본질, 내용, 그리고 결과도 나타나지 않고 있다고 여겨진다. 이에 본고는 마가의 예수 시험 기사가 다른 공관복음의 기사와 다른 독특성이 있음을 주장한다. 첫째, 마가의 기사는 마태와 누가의 기록에 대한 파편이거나 요약이 아니라, 마태와 누가와 독립된 기사이다. 마가의 기사는 마태와 마가의 기록보다 먼저 기록이 되었을 가능성이 있기에, 마태와 누가가 오히려 마가의 기록에 의존할 수 있음을 주장한다. 둘째, 마가의 기록이 예수가 시험을 받은 것이 아니라, 그저 광야에 머물렀다는 것에 불과하다는 주장은 옳지 않다. 하나님께서 출애굽한 이스라엘을 시험하기 위하여 광야로 이끄신 것처럼, 새 이스라엘인 예수는 시험 받기 위하여 광야에 머물렀음이 틀림이 없다. 또한 예수의 광야 시험 기사는 그의 지상 사역을 준비하는 역할로 볼 때, 예수의 광야에서의 시험은 꼭 필요한 과정으로 볼 수 있을 것이다. 셋째, 마가의 광야 시험 기사가 극히 짧은 것은 마가복음의 이해에 있어 중요하지 않다는 점이다. 예수의 인생은 계속적인 시험의 연속이기에 마가는 자신의 신학적인 판단을 가지고 예수의 광야 시험 기사를 짧게 기록했다고 볼 수 있다. 마가는 예수의 시험 사건을 몰라 짧게 기록한 것이 아닌 것이다. 그러므로 마가에 따른 예수의 광야 시험 기사는 마태와 마가의 기사와는 달리 마가복음만의 독특성을 가진 것이다. 이러한 마가에 따른 예수 광야 시험은 신앙인의 삶도 역시 사탄의 공격에 노출되어 있음을 알게 한다. 신앙인은 영적 전투가 그의 생애에 필수적인 과정으로 인지해야 한다. 예수님처럼, 신앙인들도 사탄의 공격 앞에서 성령의 인도함으로 능동적으로 싸워 승리하는 삶을 살아야 할 것이다. This article studies the uniqueness of Jesus’ wilderness temptation according to Mark. The Markan Jesus’ wilderness temptation out of the Synoptics has been neglected by most early Church Fathers, Reformers, and modern theologians. The major reason is that Markan Jesus’ wilderness temptation(Mk. 1:12-13) is much shorter than the other Gospels, Mt. 4:1-11 and Lk. 4:1-13, and has no three-part dialogue. Thus, this account is considered a fragment or abbreviation of the versions of Matthew’s and Luke’s wilderness temptation. Also, this Markan version is neglected by “Jesus in wilderness,” in that Jesus just stayed in the wilderness for forty days, rather than “Jesus in temptation.” This story is even considered that there is no indication of a nature, content, and outcome of Jesus’ temptation. Therefore, this article asserts that Jesus’ wilderness temptation according to Mark is unique, comparing to Matthew’s and Luke’s version. First, this account is not a fragment or abridgement of the longer versions in Matthew and Luke, textually independent from them. Markan version should be regarded more primitive than those of both Matthew and Luke. So, they might be, conversely, dependent on Mark’s version. Second, this story is improbable that Jesus was not tempted, but just stayed in the wilderness. Jesus as New Israel absolutely stayed to be tested, just like that God led Israel to test into wilderness. Also, this account is indispensable process, when we consider Jesus’ wilderness temptation as a process that prepared his ministry. Third, the brevity of this account is not due to the Evangelist Mark did not know the full story. Rather, he recorded this temptation story briefly on purpose to serve his Christological purposes. The reason is that Mark recorded this account as the introductory temptation of Jesus in his life of incessant temptation. Therefore, Jesus’ wilderness temptation according to Mark has the uniqueness, comparing to Matthew’s and Luke’s version. Such a Jesus’ wilderness temptation indicates believers are revealed to Satan’s attack. Believer must know that spiritual warfare is mandatory to his life. He need to win, following the Holy Spirit, against Satan’s attack, like Jesus Chrtist.

황야에 대한 인식과 미적 경험의 변화 - 조경의 이중적 자연관과 그 모순 -

배정한,Pae Jeong-Hann 한국조경학회 2006 韓國造景學會誌 Vol.34 No.1

This paper examines the conceptual shift of wilderness and its legacy to the contradictory view of nature in landscape architecture tradition. In hunting and gathering societies, there was no dichotomy between the cultivated environment and wilderness. 'Wilderness' is a word whose first usage marks the transition from a hunting-gathering economy to an agricultural society. We can identify two archetypal responses to wilderness: classical and romantic. In the classical perspective, wilderness is something to be feared-an area of waste and desolation. The conquest of wilderness and the creation of usable places is a mark of civilization. For the romantics, in contrast, untouched wilderness has the greatest significance; it has a purity that human contact tends to sully and degrade. Wilderness for the romantics is a place to revere, a place of deep spiritual significance, and an object of aesthetic experience. In the Western world, the classical position predominated until the last two hundred years when the romantic concept began to gain more ground. The shift was made possible by the change in the way nature is understood. Modernity and modern science objectified nature. The transition of the concept of wilderness exemplifies the objectification and pictorialization of nature. Wilderness in the modern era is not different from the pastoral landscape which can be controlled by landscape architects.

광야의 상징성에 관한 소고(小考) ― 이육사의<광야(曠野)>와 목단(穆旦)의 <재광야상(在曠野上)>을 중심으로

김미영 ( Kim Miyoung ),장동천 ( Zang Dongchion ) 중국어문연구회 2018 中國語文論叢 Vol.0 No.86

Lee Yuksa and Mu Dan were poets who created poetry in Korea and China respectively in the common time of 1930s and early 1940s. Both Lee Yuksa and Mu Dan share the image of ‘Wilderness’ by writing the poem “The Wilderness (광야)” and “In the Wilderness (在曠野上)”. Since the mid 1930s, there have been many poems with the title of ‘The Wilderness’ in Korea and Japan. However, while many were meant to serve the strategy of Japan’s permanent occupation of Manchuria, the “wilderness” of Lee Yuksa and Mu Dan were clearly different from that which the poetry titled “Wilderness”. What made the poets who lived in two different spaces dream about the same space called “Wilderness”? The tragic perception of the world, unable to compromise with the world, led the two poets to a “wilderness” as a space where they could open their inner freedom. The “wilderness” as a place to get freedom of thought has utopian character. However, the acquisition of Utopia was not easy to obtain or dream of two poets. In the case of Lee Yuksa, the utopia through thorough self-sacrifice was left in the future, and Mu Dan frustrated about utopia after thorough criticism of reality.

Crossing the Wilderness: The Meaning of Toil in Hemingway's “Big Two Hearted River” and McCarthy’s All the Pretty Horses

( Seo¸ Ju-hyun ) 동국대학교 영어권문화연구소 2016 영어권문화연구 Vol.9 No.3

Although Hemingway's short story “Big Two Hearted River” was not popular during that period, it has literary themes that are central to Hemingway and has a strong sense of his typical writing style, the iceberg technique. Therefore, his seemingly simple and short story of Nick Adams should not be underestimated as an account of a peaceful journey toward nature. On the contrary, it is a story of an inwardly and outwardly wounded soldier from the First World War. Hemingway himself also took part in the same war and was traumatized by the event. Cormac McCarthy also examines the anxieties of modern people in his writing by using similar iceberg technique. For this reason, his novel All the Pretty Horses should not be considered as another old-fashioned Western adventure story. As Nick Adams in “Big Two Hearted River”, John Grady Cole is a victim of the World War. John Grady Cole’s father participated the Second World War and he lost his Wille zum Leben. Ultimately, his father’s participation leads John’s entire family to be torn apart. After the death of John Grady Cole’s maternal grandfather, he leaves United States for Mexico in order to keep his cowboy lifestyle and spirit. This paper aims to compare two stories, “Big Two Hearted River” and All the Pretty Horses, so as to show personal journey and toil in the wilderness as a means of self-redemption and regaining one’s authentic identity in a disoriented modern world. To examine the meaning of journey toward the wilderness, it is important to remember that there are two different aspects in American Wilderness. First, it has the qualities of solitude and hardship. Second, it is an attractive place to city dwellers who want to escape from too much civilization. In this perspective, I will explore the possibility of the two protagonists’ endeavors at healing their damaged identities in the wilderness. This paper will be divided into three main parts. First, I will examine the departures of the two protagonists toward the wilderness. Second, I will discuss the effects of their endeavors in the wilderness. Lastly, I will explore their gradual realization of the reality and constant exertions to regain control over their authentic identities and values. This comparison process will give the readers the idea that the protagonists’ patient labors and toils in crossing the wilderness can be read as efforts to restore their impaired subjecthood in a post-war world. Even though the two protagonists’ endeavors to heal their identities in it are not successfully fulfilled, it would be worthwhile to analyze some positive aspects of their attempts as our contemporaries’ heroic challenge.

Illustrations of Imaginary Creatures from “The Classic of the Great Wilderness”(山海經)as Source of Inspiration

( Yuxiao Dong ),( Juyoung Chang ) 한국디자인트렌드학회 2017 한국디자인포럼 Vol.54 No.-

Background This study primarily discusses the imaginary creatures and their illustrations found within the ancient Chinese book, “The Classic of the Great Wilderness (山海經)”. The main goal of this paper is to raise the people`s attention and understanding of "The Classic of the Great Wilderness". The purpose is to explore the value of this book and investigate its potential of application to contemporary design. Methods Three methods are used for this analysis. Literature research: Thoroughly analyzing "The Classic of the Great Wilderness" to achieve a comprehensive and detailed understanding, the paper analyzes the cultural characteristics and artistic features of traditional artistic images within the book. Character Analysis: This paper selects several representative images of interest, such as Gumiho, Emperor Jiang and tries to find similarities in the creative process of imagining these creatures. Comparative Research: by comparing the creatures image in“The Classic of the Great Wilderness”and the creatures in the film “Monster Hunt”and "monsters University". The similarities and differences are analyzed in order to inherit and develop the traditional culture. Result Although "The Classic of the Great Wilderness" was written many years before “Monster Hunt”and "Monster University" was created, similarities in design strongly connect the movie and the book. We can observe the extension of imagination from "The Classic of the Great Wilderness"” to “Monster Hunt.”and "Monster University". Conclusion Design consists of traditional and cultural elements. An important traditional book such as “The Classic of the Great Wilderness”is a priceless source for creating contemporary designs and a valuable source of inspiration. The mismatching of body parts, limbs and organs to creates monsters seems to be a universal cultural practice that has been going on since the ancient times. Discovering the book as a hidden creative gem from tradition can help us innovate. A close correlation exists between valuable cultural heritage and innovation.

특집 논문 : 생태위기, 어제와 오늘 그리고 래일 ; 야생지(wilderness) 철학과 생태학: 그 한계와 의미

김완구 ( Whan Ku Kim ) 한국환경철학회 2012 환경철학 Vol.0 No.14

이 논문에서는 환경보호라는 윤리적 목표를 실현하기 위해 환경철학이나 윤리에서 고민하는 다양한 주제들 중에서도 특별히 야생지에 대한 철학적 논의를 검토한다. 야생지에 대한 철학적 논의가 현재 우리가강이나 갯벌, 습지 등을 두고 벌이는 환경 쟁점들을 어떻게 다루어야 할지에 대해 나름의 좋은 방안을 제시해 줄 것이라 생각하기 때문이다. 이를 위해 여기서는 먼저 ``야생``과 ``야생지``에 대한 정의 문제는 물론 이를 둘러싸고 벌어지는 철학적 논의들을 소개한다. 그리고 야생지의 보존과 관련해서 제기되는 문제, 즉 야생지를 누가, 왜, 어떠한 목적으로 그리고 어떠한 모습으로 보존해야 하는지에 대한 문제를 다룬다. 이 가운데 핵심은 어떤 모습으로 보존해야 하는가 하는 것이다. 그런데 이러한 문제에 대해서는 생태학이 가장 확실한 해결책을 제시해 줄 것으로 기대된다. 하지만 생태학 또한 여러 가지 한계로 만족한 해결책을 제시하지 못한다. 그래서 여기에서는 생태학이 복잡계로서의 야생지와 같은 생태계를 다루는데 여러 가지 한계가 있다는 점을 지적한다. 또한 과학으로서의 생태학이 생태계에 대한 정확한 사실적 정보를 준다하더라도 그것은 여전히 생태계 보존이라는 윤리적 실천의 문제와 관련해 많은 문제점을 지닌다는 점을 지적한다. 이러한 이유로 결론에서는 복잡한 자연환경들을 다루거나 할 때는 섣불리 태도를 결정할것이 아니라는 점을 지적하면서 강이나 갯벌 등과 같은 생태계 보존 문제와 관련해서도 우리는 겸손과 절제 그리고 존중과 신중함과 같은 덕목들을 고려하는 덕의 윤리로 나아가야 한다는 것을 제안한다. Concerning how to protect the nature around us, many issues have been raised in environmental philosophy and ethics. Especially, in this paper, I shall investigate philosophical discussions on wilderness protection in the literature. I do this because, in my opinion, such an investigation will lead us to the best approach to urgent problems related to our rivers, swamps, and mud flats. For this purpose, I shall first discuss the meaning of "wilderness." Not only shall I introduce its standard definition, but I shall also review the debate about it. Next, I address myself to several issues about the conservation of wilderness, e.g., who will take the charge, to what ends it will be pursued, and how to protect it. Here the most important issue is how to protect it. The study of ecology is likely to play an important role. But ecology alone will not be sufficient. For it is only a limited tool in dealing with a complex system like wilderness. Moreover, even if ecology as a science is correct with respect to factual matters, it raises many difficult issues with respect to ethical and practical matters. In conclusion, I suggest a virtue ethics which respects various ethical virtues, including humility, moderation, respect, and prudence as a necessary means for the protection of wilderness, warning against a hasty choice of our attitude towards a complex system like our natural environment.

Comparative Analysis of the Imaginary Creatures in“Classic of the Great Wilderness”(山海經)and "Strange Animals Book”(怪奇鳥獸圖卷)

( Yuxiao Dong ),( Juyoung Chang ) 한국디자인트렌드학회 2017 한국디자인포럼 Vol.56 No.-

Background This study primarily discusses the links and connections of imaginary creatures illustrations between two ancient books: "Classic of the Great Wilderness"(山海經) and "Strange Animals Book"(怪奇鳥獸圖卷). And this study compares and analyses their similarities, and investigates on their historical links between China and Japan. The main aim of this study is to find the relation between two books, to explore the value of those ancient books and to investigate their potential of application to contemporary design and other areas. Methods Literature research: By studying the imaginary creatures illustrations of two books in libraries and museums, and reviewed imaginary creatures that appear in "Classic of the Great Wilderness" and "Strange Animals Book", and then analysed them on a comprehensive and detailed basis. Case research: Representative creatures that appear in both Chinese and Japanese versions were selected for the analysis and comparison. Comparative research: By comparing the images of the imaginary creatures that appear in the two books, the study analyzed their links and relations, and then discussed their heritage in innovating and developing the traditional culture. Result By comparing the images of the imaginary creatures that appear in the two books, the study found the relation between them, identified their similarities, and analyzed their differences. The imaginary creatures in "Classic of the Great Wilderness" gave a big influence to the creation of "Strange Animals Book" as a reference. The imaginary creatures after the integration of the Japanese local imaginary creatures culture system and gradually evolved into a variety of Japanese imaginary creatures images that some are still active now. Although "Classic of the Great Wilderness" was written hundreds of years ago, it remains a creative gem that offers insight for innovation. A close correlation exists between valuable cultural inheritance and innovation. Conclusion According to the description and images of various imaginary creatures in "Classic of the Great Wilderness", the imaginary creatures are used as a reference in the creation of "Strange Animals Book" for depicting cultural elements from China. A number of them have been disseminated through local Japanese culture, and many classic Japanese monsters images are still well known today, such as Tengu(天狗). And with the evolution of these traditional images, they were known and loved by more people, and were used in various fields. Important traditional books such as “The Classic of the Great Wilderness” and "Strange Animals Book" are priceless sources for creating contemporary design and inspiration. Those ancient books left a great wealth on the art of thinking and imagination, so they are worth letting more people learn and study their mystery.

제국(帝國)의 콩고 식민지배와 조셉 콘라드의 열대성(熱帶性)에 대한 인식

이종찬 ( Jong-chan Lee ) 한국사회사학회 2012 사회와 역사 Vol.0 No.96

조셉 콘라드가 아프리카 콩고 강을 다녀오고 난 후에 쓴 「어둠의 심연」은 그동안 문학이론 또는 문학비평 전문가들에 의해 이루어져 왔다. 이들에 의한 연구는 정작 작품의 발생 공간인 ``열대``(tropics)에 주목하지 않음으로 해서 작품에서 가장 빈번하게 등장하는 용어 중의 하나인 ``야생``(wilderness)의 의미를 포착해내지 못하고 있다. 문학의 울타리 내에서만 읽혀져 왔기 때문에 이렇게 된 것이다. 따라서, 열대적 야생에 주목하는 이 글의 목적은 문학의 역사사회학과 생물지리학의 융합적 지평에서 유럽의 제국주의와 열대적 야생의 관계를 탐구하는데 있다. 예술은 역사에 대한, 역사는 "지리에 대한 거대한 은유"이다. 콘라드가 작품 활동을 가장 열심했던 1890년대에서 1920년대까지의 시기는 제국주의가 가장 절정에 도달했던 시기인데, 이 시기에 발표했던 「암흑의 핵심」은 이 시기의 제국주의 역사에 대한 은유이며, 이런 역사는 그가 어릴 적부터 키워왔던 지리적 상상력을 열대 콩고에서 실현한 것에 대한 거대한 은유인 셈이다. 콘라드는 어릴 적부터 그렇게도 가보고 싶어했던 콩고에 가게 되었는데, 그의 이런 지리적 상상력이 실현될 수 있었던 것은 베를린아프리카회의를 통해서 콩고 자유국가가 설립될 수 있었기 때문이다. 「어둠의 심연」에서 ``국제야만풍습억제협회``는 유럽의 아프리카에 대한 지리적 분할로 귀결되었던 베를린아프리카회의의 역사사회학적 사건을 이해하는데 중요한 은유이다. 이 회의를 교묘하게 이용할 줄알았던 레오폴드는 기독교적 문명화의 이름으로 거대한 콩고자유국가의 깃발을 세웠다. 콘라드가 「어둠의 심연」에서 보여준 문제의식의 한쪽 지향점은 이러한 문명화가 레오폴드의 콩고 지배를 만들어갔던 과정을 비판하는 것이다. 또 다른 지향점은 제국주의의 화신으로 상징되는 커츠가 "야만인들을 절멸"시키기는 커녕 자신의 약혼녀에게도 돌아가지 못하고 죽어갈 수밖에 없었던 열대적 야생의 상황을 보여주는데 있다. 전자를 분석하기 위해 역사사회학적 관점에서, 후자를 위해 생물지리학적 시각에서 각각 서술한 다음에, 이 글은 당시에 아프리카 무역에서 가장 상징적인 무역 상품인 상아가 보여주는 이중적 메타포에 주목하였다. 그 이유는 역사사회학과 생물지리학이 서로 융합적으로 교차하는 지점이야말로 커츠가 열대의 야생앞에서 무너져간 상황을 적나라게 보여주기 때문이다. 이 글은 국내외를 막론하고 그동안 「어둠의 심연」의 문학비평가들이 밝혀내지 못했던 점, 즉 커츠로 상징되는 서구는 제국주의의 굴레로부터 벗어나지 못하는 한 열대성의 본질인 야생을 결코인식할 수 없음을 규명하였다는 데 그 의의가 있다. The theme of the paper is analyzed in terms of three perspectives. First, emphasizing that the Congo River belongs to tropical climate, the paper takes Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari``s geo-philosophical argument that "thinking takes place in the relationship of territory and the earth" to contend that the tropics is an important concept for understanding Conrad``s ideas of space represented in Heart of Darkness. Second, Conrad``s own statement that "Heart of Darkness is ... experience pushed a little (and only very little) beyond the actual facts of the case" persuasively provides a raison d``etre for recognizing Heart of Darkness in the aspect of historical sociology of literature, according to which literary narrative of the novel would have corresponding relationships with European imperial rule over Africa. Finally, while Heart of Darkness has extraordinary attracted literary critiques, they fail to illuminate what tropical wilderness really means in the novel. In considering that the ideology of empire was intrinsic to the formation of biogeography in the tropics, it is not surprising that the integrative analysis of biogeography and historical sociology leads to new paradigm for exploring into Conrad``s perception of the tropics. Art is a metaphor for history which is in turn a metaphor for geography. Joseph Conrad had been to Congo in 1890 and published Heart of Darknesss in 1899. If Heart of Darknesss may be applied to this statement, the novel must be a metaphor for ``high imperialism,`` the period when Europe and the United States totally scrambled for the tropics such as Africa, South East Asia, and Latin America. It is in the context of Bismarck``s well-designed Berlin West Africa Conference that Conrad``s geographical imagination for the exploration of Congo as the equatorial tropics was realized. Belgian King Lepold II built up the ``Congo Free State`` in the name of ``civilizing mission`` on the condition that he had fully accepted the general act of the conference. When Conrad pointed out that all Europe contributed to the making of ``Kurtz,`` the most significant figure and the best collector of ivory in the novel, he was constructed to denote European civilizing mission that was catchphrased as "Exterminate All the Brutes." The reason why Kurtz failed to accomplish ``imperial ideas`` and died away is deeply interwined with an inescapable dilemma in which the more he got the ivory in Congo, the more he became beleaguered by tropical wilderness. Ivory has double metaphors in the novel. While it strongly demonstrates imperial desire, it signifies the tropical wilderness of natural history in Congo. The former is connected with historical sociology, the latter with biogeography. Ivory becomes the very contact point between the two perspectives in the novel. Thus Kurtz``s imperial desire is not simply related with, but highly dependent on tropical wilderness. In conclusion, the paper integrated historical sociology and biogeography of literature to illuminate that as long as the West is not liberated from the bondage of imperialism, the West will never recognize the meaning of tropical wilderness forever.

육사 시에 나타난 천명의식 - 「광야」, 「꽃」을 중심으로

강진우(姜璡佑) 한국국학진흥원 2019 국학연구 Vol.0 No.38

이육사의 시 「광야」는 천지창조의 시간과 광야의 거친 시간, 미래를 포괄하면서 하늘, 산맥, 매화, 초인을 등장시켜 시로 표현한 것이다. 그의 「광야」는 동양의 우주관과 선비의 자세라 할 수 있는 천명을 표현하고 있다. 이러한 특징은 가학家學과 관련지어 본다면 성리학, 특히 「천명도설」에 근거하여 해석하는 것이 타당하다. 육사의 「광야」에서의 ‘어데 닭 우는소리 들렸으랴’는 ‘닭’도 울지 않는 원시의 시원성, 불모성, 순선의 세계를 의미하기 위해 도입한 시 구절이다. 그런데도 우주의 시원을 ‘닭 우는 소리와 함께 시작했다’고 해석하는 것은 시인 이육사의 사상과도 일치하지 않고, 동양적 우주관과도 맞지 않는다. 육사의 사상에 비추어 보면 불모의 광야에서 억겁의 시간이 흐른 뒤 강물이 생기고, 닭이 울었다. 시적 주체는 광야에서 자신의 육체적 한계를 절감하여 자신의 의지를 매화로 표하고, ‘노래’의 ‘씨’를 뿌린다고 하였다. 더하여 시인은 ‘초인’을 개입시켜 ‘리’가 완전히 실현되도록 하려는 의지를 표한다. 이러한 육사의 상상력은 역사‧문화적 관점에서 출발하는데, 그것이 바로 ‘백마’를 탄 ‘초인’으로 나타난다. 이는 역사의 문제를 해결하는 민중적 영웅의 모습을 표현하는 관습적 표현과 맞닿아 있다. The poem 「The Wilderness」 is a poem expressing the sky, mountains, plum, and superman, covering the time of creation, the rough time of the wilderness, and the future. His 「Wilderness」 expresses the spirit of the universe of the Orient and the man of virtue’s aspect. It is a poem that introduces the meaning of primitive, infertile, and pure goodness that does not cry even if the ‘chicken’ is heard in ‘Wilderness’. According to Yuksa’s thought, a time was spent in the barren wilderness, and there was a river, and the chicken wept. The poetic subject, in the wilderness, reduced his physical limits and expressed his will in plum, and sprinkled the ‘seed’ of ‘song’. In addition, the poet expresses his intention to bring ‘Li’ to full realization through the ‘superhuman’. The imagination of such a veteran starts from the viewpoint of history and culture, and it appears as a ‘superhuman’ riding a ‘white horse’. This is in line with the customary expression of the appearance of a popular hero who solves the problem of history.