18세기 금위영・어영청 향군 정번의 추이와 영향

방범석 대구사학회 2024 대구사학 Vol.156 No.-

조선 후기 수도 방위를 담당한 경군문 중 금위영・어영청은 4년에 한 번 상경하여 2개월 근무하는 번상군을 중심으로 운영되었다. 번상은 재난이 발생하면 정지될 수 있었는데, 이러한 조치를 당대에 정번이라 지칭하였다. 이 글은 1682년부터 1800년까지 정번에 관한 논의와 결정을 분석하여 다음과 같이 결과를 정리하였다. 분석 대상이 된 119개년 중 3분의 1 이상의 연도에서 금위영・어영청 정번 시행이 확인되었다. 정번은 번차 인원을 감축하는 감번, 번상 순서를 조정하는 환번으로 크게 구별되는데, 정번의 대부분은 특정 번차의 전원을 상경하지 않게 하는 전체 감번으로 결정되었다. 흉년과 전염병 같은 재난에 대응하는 조치였던 정번은 정조 시기에 재난 발생과 무관하게 재정 보충의 수단으로 활용되기 시작하였다. 정번은 향군의 군사적 기량 저하, 병력 공백에 따른 대책 마련 등 군사적 영향을 파생하였다. 정번 향군에게 대가를 군문에 상납하게 하고 본래 향군에게 직접 왕래비를 제공하던 자보까지 정번 시에도 그 분량을 군문에 상납하게 한 것은 숙종 시기부터의 일로 추정된다. 이것은 정번이 재정 보충에 활용될 가능성을 열어둔 것인데, 향군 번상을 폐지하고 그들에게 과세한다는 방안은 18세기에 간헐적으로 제기되다 정조 시기에 사실상 정책으로 구현되었다. 이러한 역사적 과정은 군역의 두 방식인 신체적 복무와 경제적 복무 사이에서 점차 전자를 후자로 대체한 것이자, 군사제도 운영에 관하여 수도권과 지방의 분리가 심화하였음을 보여주는 것이다. This paper examines the flexible use of military forces of the Guarding Garrison (Geumwiyeong) and the Royal Garrison (Eoyeongcheong), which were two of the capital garrisons in the later period of Joseon. Rotational duty was chosen for their main forces over permanent duty. Selected commoners in provinces came to Seoul every four years to serve as soldiers of the garrisons for two months. Duty was suspended occasionally for rotational soldiers to cope with natural disasters such as famine or plague. Based on the data, both the Guarding Garrison and the Royal Garrison faced suspension of duty for over one-third of the covered period from 1682 to 1800. Suspension of duty affected the military policy and fiscal management of Joseon. Rotational soldiers, who were mostly farmers in their residences, easily became ineffective when duty was suspended for a long time. Moreover, alternative forces were required to cover the absence of rotational soldiers. As the number of cases for suspension of duty increased, skepticism about rotational soldiers gradually grew. Conversion of rotational soldiers to military tax payers was proposed to meet the fiscal needs, which was considered more serious than the military issues. At least since the early eighteenth-century, rotational soldiers had paid a sort of military tax during the period of suspension of duty. King Jeongjo (r. 1776-1800) made it practically permanent by 15-year suspension of duty to support his political purpose including the construction of Hwaseong Fortress. In conclusion, the state of Joseon during the eighteenth-century began to put more weight on economic service than physical service when it comes to the military duty of commoners. Furthermore, the separation of the capital and other provinces accelerated as suspension of duty became a long-term or frequent phenomenon.

조선후기 중앙군제의 운영과 숙종대 양반충군론

김종수 육군군사연구소 2016 군사연구 Vol.- No.141

조선전기에는 양인개병제에 따라 양반도 군역의 의무를 져야했다. 그런데 양반들은 여러 방법으로 군역의 의무를 피하였고, 또 갑사 등 무관 병종에 들어가 의무군역을 면제받고 관직에 대한 욕구도 충족시켰다. 조선전기에 갑사는 최정예 군종(軍種)으로 주로 양반들이 입속(入屬)하였다. 그러나 16세기에 들어와 갑사에 대한 대우가 열악해지면서 점차 양반들은 갑사 입속을 기피하였다. 양반들은 한유(閑遊)하거나 보다 더 대접받는 유학공부로 돌아서고 있었다. 당시 전국에서 우후죽순처럼 들어서고 있던 서원이 이들을 받아들이고 있었다. 이후 군역은 일반 양인들만 지는 양역(良役)으로 변질되었다. 임진왜란 이후 17세기 동안 조선 정부는 계속되는 대내외적 위기 속에서 중앙군영을 잇달아 설치하여 중앙 5군영제가 성립되었다. 그런데 5군영이 설립되었어도 조선전기 5위제 하의 의무군인의 군액은 그대로 존속하고 있었다. 이에 군액은 2배로 증가하게 되어 양역 문제가 발생하였다. 당시 많은 관료 지식인들은 양역 문제의 발생 원인을 양반층의 군역 이탈로 보았다. 이러한 인식 속에서 조선후기에 들어와 양반충군론이 대두하게 된다. 양반충군론을 가장 적극적으로 제기한 인물은 숙종대의 윤휴였다. 윤휴는 북벌을 이루기 위해 양반과 서얼을 함께 총부(摠府)에 소속시켜 군인으로 만들자고 주장하였다. 이것이 조정 대신들의 반대에 부딪치자, 다시 그는 만과(萬科)의 시행을 주장하였고, 또 호포론을 제기하였다. 이러한 윤휴의 주장에 대해 조정 대신과 양반들은 대대적으로 저항하였다. 윤휴가 경신환국으로 제거된 이후, 양반충군론을 다시 들고 나온 사람은 박세채였다. 그러나 그의 주장도 받아들여지지 않았다. 조선후기에 양반들은 정치, 경제, 사회, 문화 모든 면에서 특권을 누리면서 군역의 의무는 떠맡으려 하지 않았다. In early Chosun, yangban(兩班) also had to fulfill their military duty. But yangban avoided it in several ways. Meanwhile, in early Chosun, yangban entered Gapsa(甲士) or such to be exempted from their military duty and also satisfied their needs to be in public office, too. But from the 16th century, the treatment for Gapsa got poor, and yangban avoided it gradually, too. Yangban left their Gapsa position and just turned their head to studying Confucianism which was treated well then. Soon, the military service came to be regarded as yangyeok(良役) imposed only to yangin(良人). In the 17th century, Chosun government installed military camps in a row within the continuing crisis in the inside and outside, and the central 5 military camp system came to be established. Even when the 5 military camps were founded, the number of soldiers under the 5 wije(衛制) in early Chosun still remained, which resulted in the issue of yangyeok(良役) in late Chosun. At that time, many of the bureaucratic intellects deemed that the yangyeok issue was raised from yangban’s deviation from their military duty. Within this recognition, Yangban-chunggunron(兩班充軍論) was raised in late Chosun. The figure setting force Yangban-chunggunron the most aggressively was Yun Hyu in Sukjong’s reign. Yun Hyu insisted it was needed to make yangban and Seoeol affiliated to Chongbu(摠府) to be soldiers in order to conquer the north. When this was refused by the subjects of the government, he again insisted on the enforcement of Mangwa(萬科) and also Hoporon(戶布論). What Yun Hyu supposed was fiercely refused by yangban as well as the subjects of the government. After Yun Hyu was eliminated through Gyeongsinhwanguk(庚申換局), Pak Sechae(朴世采) came up with Yangban-chunggunron again. But his opinion was not accepted, either. While enjoying their privilege in every way including politics, economy, society, and culture, yangban was unwilling to take any of the military service.

梧川 李宗城의 軍制 및 軍役 變通論

김우철 (사)한국인물사연구회 2011 한국인물사연구 Vol.15 No.-

Born into a prestigious family that belonged to the Disciples’ faction, Lee Jong-seong served in various government posts including the post of chief state councilor and gained the favor of King Yeongjo. He had profound knowledge of Confucianism and perceived practically various issues of his time on the basis of abundant administrative experience he had acquired from serving in various provincial government posts. Furthermore, he raised problems with the military system and forced military duty of his time, sparking several discussions on the improvement of the system and duty. Lee Jong-seong tried to correct problems, such as a huge difference in duties and the increase of military taxes, caused by carrying out both the Five Camp System and regimental troops system. At first, King Yeongjo and some chief ministers who misunderstood the reality and had a lingering attachment to the systems created by the former king did not approve Lee's reform plan, but at Lee's repeated persuasions and requests, they agreed to execute the plan. As a result, the duplicated military system in charge of the north army commend was simplified into the army branches of studying military and artillery. While developing the proposal to adapt the commoner cloth tax, Lee Jong-seong expressed his stance aggressively. His argument was summarized in the adaptability of the system of mounted and foot soldiers and opposition against household tax and land-cloth tax. He economically approached the adaptability of the commoner cloth tax from the perspective of finance management. The suggestion to adapt mounted and foot soldiers sought to achieve good financial condition through the improvement of finance management without making any change on the taxes imposed. In the meantime, Lee Jong-seong completely opposed a massive adaptability plan, such as a plan to impose household tax or land-cloth tax, that would change the commoner cloth tax system. As a result, he failed to present a solution except for the normed and progressive measures to tighten discipline and manage finances effectively. It was true that the problems with the commoner cloth tax could be resolved only limitedly. But, that also reflected the thoughts of the Joseon government and most Confucian scholars. Ultimately, massive adaptability plan like a plan to impose household tax failed to be adopted and Lee Jong-seong's plans including the adjustment of the order of mounted and foot soldiers were accepted only partially. The equal service reform was a compromise measure taken to complement the reduction of tax revenues. The failure to overcome Lee Jong seong's logic that valued the financial aspects of the commoner cloth tax was the limitation of discussions over the adaptability of the commoner cloth tax that led to equal service reform and also the limitation of the times.

1307년 "依上國之制, 定軍民" 조치의 내용과 의미

이강한(Lee, Kang-hahn) 고려사학회 2011 한국사학보 Vol.- No.45

King Chungseon-wang, when he first ascended to the throne in 1298, tried to renovate the Goryeo institution of military mobilization, by securing more land units and distributing them all to households assigned for military duties. Then in 1308, when he returned to the throne after a 10-year stay upon Yuan, he chose a different tactic, and concentrated his efforts upon ensuring that the military households stay in good shape and in healthy condition which would enable them to respond to the government"s call more swiftly and willingly. In order to do that, he first gathered a large group of lowly servants from both the public and private sectors, and then intended to channel their labor force into individual households which could later serve as potential military units. Chungseon-wang"s such efforts was a natural evolution from the previous institutions of former Goryeo kings, but it also surprisingly resembled the ongoing efforts conducted by the Yuan imperial government which was determined at the time to secure an adequate number of military servants and tie them into households that were slated for military deployments. King Chungseon-wang grew up in Yuan, studied the Yuan government"s policies since his youth, and was able to maintain a close relationship with Yuan emperor Wutsung. So he was well aware of certain problems inside Yuan that were destabilizing the Yuan government"s military administartion, and he was facing similar problems of his own in Goryeo as well. So, in an effort to graft certain policies upon some Goryeo-specific problems, and adapt certain methods to the Goryeo environment, he declared in 1307 that he would "newly define parameters concerning the relationship between individuals scheduled for military services and people who were not, using Yuan -generated policies and institution." This attempt was met with severe resistance from the Goryeo officials including Choi Yu-eom, and there were many other potential problems that had to be ironed out first. Chungseon-wang was forced to refrain from making any more attempts, and was left with no other chose but to pursue a policy that would be less provocative in the eyes of the Goryeo people. So he decided to impliment the above-mentioned policy of securing lowly servants and integrating them into military households. Although such actions taken by Chungseon-wang after 1308 must have been certainly "toned down" compared to his initial approach, they still were seemingly inspired by Yuan"s customary approaches to the said problem. Chungseon-wang"s overall efforts to resuscitate the dying military institutions of Goryeo was quite thorough and imaginative. He utilized the existing conventions of Goryeo, while also putting all the foreign knowledge he accumulated in Yuan to a good use. As a result, he was able to delay the total collapse of the Goryeo military mobilization system.

조선초기 군사들의 하번(下番)시 복무에 관한 연구

김정웅 육군군사연구소 2018 군사연구 Vol.- No.146

In Choson Dynasty. Soldiers were served in the central or local military under the bunsang system. After serving as guard and patrol for the royal family in Seoul, or the service in the local military camp, and the defend service in the fringe·land area, they could return to their own occupation. But it was impossible. Some of the soldiers were also required to perform military duties in the period of off-duty. They were forced to serve in the fringe·land area, and they were also mobilized to take action against enemy invasion. They worked for local policing and construction of government issued. The soldiers were drafted by the army register and managed by soldiers such as Sopa or Chongpae, and reported to local military base, and were allowed to leave the area with permission. They had to got regular censorship and military test, and regular battle formation training was also conducted. Unlike the Goryeo Dynasty, The central forces were not reinforced if a invasion in the frontier, while only a small numbe of forces and the command line. Under this system, Therefore, these veterans had to be put into defending duty at the frontier, or immediately mobilized in case of war or a sudden invasion. The military service was still ongoing, even though they were duty off period, and the military service was painful for the soldiers, there was widespread military service confusion, including substitution, to avoid it. 조선초기 군사제도의 정비과정을 통해 군역수행방식이 정립되면서, 군사들은 중앙군이나 지방군에서 번상제에 의해 복무하였다. 중앙군은 13개 병종, 지방군은 5개 병종으로 정비되었고, 이들 병종 군사들은 당번시기에 서울에 올라가 왕실의 시위와 숙위를 담당하는 번상근무와 지방의 영진에서 근무하는 유방근무, 변경지역에서 복무하는 부방근무 체제하에서 복무하고 나면, 하번시에는 거주지에서 생업에 종사하도록 하는 체제였다. 그러나 하번시에도 생계를 유지하는데 전념할 수 없었다. 하번시에도 시위패, 갑사, 별시위, 방패 등의 병종은 군사적 임무를 수행해야 했는데 이들은 하번시에도 요해처(要害處)에 번차를 정해 부방근무를 하기도 하였고, 유사시에 동원되어 적변을 진압하기 위해 투입되기도 했다. 또한 이들은 지역의 치안유지나 역사(役事)에 동원되기도 하였다. 조선초기 군사들은 군적(軍籍)을 작성하여 이에 의해 관리되면서, 소패나 총패와 같은 인원에 의해 번상 및 하번시 관리되었다. 유사시에 대비하여 지역의 영과 진에 녹적(錄籍)하여야 했고, 지역을 이탈할 시에는 관아(官衙)에 보고를 하고 승인을 받은 후에야 가능하였다. 또한 주기적인 점고(點考)와 함께 취재(取才)를 받아야 했으며, 정기적인 습진(習陣)훈련도 받아야 했다. 이는 고려시대와 달리 변경지역에서 외침이 발생하면 중앙군이 증원되지 않고, 지휘부와 소수 군사만 파견되는 국방체계에서 소수의 지방군만이 운영되어 하번군사들도 지방의 군사력으로 관리되어야 했기 때문이었다. 따라서 조선초기 군사들에겐 하번기간도 복무가 계속되는 기간이었다고 보여지며, 군역기간은 당번이나 하번이나 군사들에겐 고통스러운 기간이었기 때문에 이를 회피하기 위해 모든 방법을 강구하게 되었고 이로 인해 대립제 등 군역문란 현상이 만연하게 되었다.

16세기 조선 지방군제의 동요 - 牙兵의 형성 배경 -

김순남 조선시대사학회 2015 朝鮮時代史學報 Vol.73 No.-

This study reveals the historical background to how the local military system was turned upside down during early Joseon by introducing the backdrop to the formation of the so-called ivory troops(牙兵, abyeong). The ivory troops were military forces that gathered under an ivory flag(牙旗, agi) set in the location where the General(大將) was situated. While not even regarded as a type of local military unit during the 15th century, the abyeong had become an official military force by the 17th century. This change was a result of the social situation in 16th century Joseon, and inparticular, during the reigns from Yeonsangun to King Myeongjong. Joseon society was marked in the 16th century by the advent of a phenomenon in which the number of low borners exceeded that of commoners. Many citizens of Joseon no longer able to cope with the burden of military duty and corvée labor effectively left society to join groups of robbers and thieves. Under growing pressure, the local governors and magistrates felt a strong need to develop their own military forces. Despite the shortage of commoners available for military duty, there were large numbers lowborners who could be mobilized for military service. Consequently, the powers that be found themselves with little other choice than to mobilize public and private slaves, who had heretofore not been subject to military or corvée labor, as soldiers. As such a change in the military system was sought during the 16th century in which the existing order of Joseon society collapsed a mid the reversal in the numbers of commoners and low born individuals. It was against this backdrop that ivory troops(牙兵, abyeong) began to be formed at the end of the 16th century. The abyeong functioned as bodyguards for local governors and magistrates in the face of the growing misbehavior being displayed by commoners. The military significance of the abyeong was further emphasized during the Japanese Invasions of 1592(25th year of King Seonjo). Following the end of the massive crisis wrought by these wars during the early 17th century, the abyeong were established as a type of local militia. 본 연구는 牙兵의 형성 배경을 살핌으로서 조선 전기 지방군 체제가 동요하는 역사적 실상을 밝혀내고자 하는 것이다. 아병은 大將이 있는 곳에 세워진 牙旗 아래 집결한 수하 병사였다. 아병은 15세기 조선의 지방군 병종으로는 나타나지 않고 17세기에 정식 병종이 되었다. 이러한 변화는 16세기 조선에 해당되는 연산군~명종대의 사회적 상황에서 초래되었다. 16세기 조선사회는 양인보다 천인이 더 많은 良少賤多 현상이 전개되었다. 이런 상황에서 군역의 부담에 지친 조선 백성들은 양천을 막론하고 떼도둑이 되어 사회적 일탈 행위를 자행했다. 이 과정에서 지방의 수령과 관찰사는 극도로 위협받았다. 그러자 이들은 휘하의 병력을 충분히 확보해야 할 필요가 있게 되었다. 이 시기에 군액에 충정할 양인은 부족해졌지만 대신 군역을 감당할 만한 천인은 넘쳐났다. 결국 종래 군역의 대상이 아니었던 公私賤에서도 군사를 징발할 수밖에 없었다. 이처럼 16세기 양천의 수가 역전되는 조선 사회의 기존 질서가 붕괴되는 속에서 군사적 변화가 모색되었다. 그 선상에서 16세기 말 ‘아병’이 형성되었다. 당초 피역민의 일탈 행위에 대처하기 위한 지방관의 수하 친병으로 기능했던 아병은 1592년(선조25)의 임진왜란을 통해 그 군사적인 의미가 특히 강조되었다. 그 결과 아병은 전란을 수습한 이후인 17세기에 지방군의 정식 병종으로 성립되었다.

梧川 李宗城의 軍制 및 軍役 變通論

김우철(Kim Woo-cheol) 한국인물사연구소 2011 한국인물사연구 Vol.15 No.-

Born into a prestigious family that belonged to the Disciples' faction, Lee Jong-seong served in various government posts including the post of chief state councilor and gained the favor of King Yeongjo. He had profound knowledge of Confucianism and perceived practically various issues of his time on the basis of abundant administrative experience he had acquired from serving in various provincial government posts. Furthermore, he raised problems with the military system and forced military duty of his time, sparking several discussions on the improvement of the system and duty. Lee Jong-seong tried to correct problems, such as a huge difference 10 duties and the increase of military taxes, caused by carrying out both the Five Camp System and regimental troops system. At first, King Yeongjo and some chief ministers who misunderstood the reality and had a lingering attachment to the systems created by the former king did not approve Lee's reform plan, but at Lee's repeated persuasions and requests, they agreed to execute the plan. As a result, the duplicated military system in charge of the north army commend was simplified into the army branches of studying military and artillery. While developing the proposal to adapt the commoner cloth tax, Lee Jong-seong expressed his srance aggressively. His argument was summarized in the adaptability of the system of mounted and foot soldiers and opposition against household tax and land-cloth tax. He economically approached the adaptability of the commoner cloth tax from the perspective of finance management. The suggestion to adapt mounted and foot soldiers sought to achieve good financial condition through the improvement of finance management without making any change on the taxes imposed. In the meantime, Lee Jong-seong completely opposed a massive adaptability plan, such as a plan to impose household tax or land-cloth tax, that would change the commoner cloth tax system. As a result, he failed to present a solution except for the normed and progressive measures to tighten discipline and manage finances effectively. It was true that the problems with the commoner cloth tax could be resolved only limitedly. But, that also reflected the thoughts of the Joseon government and most Confucian scholars. Ultimately, massive adaptability plan like a plan to impose household tax failed to be adopted and Lee Jong-seong's plans including the adjustment of the order of mounted and foot soldiers were accepted only partially. The equal service reform was a compromise measure taken to complement the reduction of tax revenues. The failure to overcome Lee Jong seong's logic that valued the financial aspects of the commoner cloth tax was the limitation of discussions over the adaptability of the commoner cloth tax that led to equal service reform and also the limitation of the times.

요역(徭役)의 관점에서 본 조선 초 승역(僧役)의 이해: 도첩제도의 정비와 관련하여

민순의 ( Min¸ Sun Euy ) 한국종교문화연구소(종교문화비평학회) 2021 종교문화비평 Vol.39 No.39

조선 개국 직후 한양 신도시의 역사(役事)에는 일반인 뿐 아니라 승려들[僧徒]도 동원되었다. 조선 초 승려들에게는 국가에서 도첩(度牒)을 발급하도록 되어 있었고, 도첩을 발급받기 위하여 승려는 자신의 평생 신역(身役) 즉 군역(軍役) 값에 해당하는 정전(丁錢)을 납부해야만 했다. 그리고 이런 과정을 통해 도첩을 발급받은 승려들은 공도승(公度僧)으로 인정되어 그 신분이 국가로부터 불교 교단으로 이양된 것으로 간주되었다. 따라서 원칙적으로 국가로부터 ‘승려’라고 불리는 이들은 국가가 요구하는 부역(負役)으로부터 자유로운 존재였고, 정전의 납부를 대신하는 등의 명목으로 입역(入役)할 때에도 그의 승역(僧役)은 신역/군역에 해당하는 것으로 생각하기 쉽다. 하지만 한양 신도시의 역사에 동원된 일반인의 사례를 볼 때, 여기에서 승려들에게 부과되었던 승역은 신역/군역과 다르게 일반 정부(丁夫)에게 부과되는 또 다른 역(役)의 형태인 요역(徭役)과 같은 종류의 것으로 보인다. 당시의 승려들이 한양의 토목공사 외에도 중앙과 지방에서의 각종 공공건물의 영선수즙(營繕修葺), 사신(使臣)에 대한 지대(支待) 등에 동원된 사례 또한 이들이 요역과 같은 역역에 종사하였음을 확인할 수 있다. 승역(僧役)의 차출 담당자와 차정 방식에 대해서는 정확한 사료가 남아 있지 않으나, 일반인 요역의 사례에 비추어 볼 때 승역의 인원은 지방관청의 행정 체계를 통하여 징발되었으며, 그 차정의 기준 또한 일반인의 요역 제도와 마찬가지로 사찰의 규모 즉 재산 정도 및 소속 승려의 수에 따라 차등 징발되었던 것으로 보인다. 그리고 그것은 도첩제도로 대표되는 교단 소속 인원의 군역 면제 원칙과 배치되지 않는 것이었다. 도첩을 지니지 않은 승려를 추쇄할 경우 즉시 환속시키고 군역을 차정한다는 《실록》의 여러 기사는 도첩 발급 시에 지불하는 정전이 승려 지원자의 평생 신역 값에 해당하는 것임을 확인한다. 이에 따라 승역은, 특히 토목공사 같은 데에 동원된 것일 경우, 군역 즉 신역의 측면에서 바라보는 것이 타당하게 여겨지는 측면이 있다. 세종 때부터 시행되기 시작한 승역급첩(僧役給牒)의 예는 승역을 군역의 차원에서 바라보는 그러한 시각을 더욱 강화한다. 하지만 도첩 발급과 정전 납부의 원칙이 세워져 있던 조선 초의 상황에서, 명백히 승려라고 지칭되는 이들이 각종 승역에 그것도 대부분 요역의 종목임이 분명한 노동에 동원되었다는 사실은 분명 재고할만한 지점이다. 기존에 승역을 요역의 관점에서 파악한 연구는 거의 없었으며, 그런 점에서 본 연구의 문제의식은 다소 도발적으로 여겨질 수도 있으리라 생각된다. 다만 조선시대 승역의 이해에 하나의 디딤돌이 되기를 기대해 본다. The Buddhist monks worked in the construction of Han-yang, the new capital city of the new nation of Joseon. Other common people also worked in the same construction as the laborer under the national system of ‘the labor of general people (徭役)’ that was one of the tax system in the traditional East Asian nations. So we can suppose that the labor of Buddhist monks (僧役) in that situation was planned as the same system of the labor of general people (徭役). By the way, the monks certified by the governmental authority were given ‘the buddhist monk’s certificate (度牒)’ and the certificate guaranteed the remission of the monk’s labor because the certificate meant that the certified monks belonged to the Buddhist samga, not to the governmental authority. If so, how and why did the certified monks labor in the construction? It’s because the monk’s certificate meant the remission of only the military service, the other item of the Asian traditional tax system. It has been thought that the labor of Buddhist monks (僧役) was a kind of the general labor for the military works (軍役). It’s because it was made a rule to impose the duty of the military service to the monks when they were ascertained to have no monk’s certificate. But it’s also true that the persons called obviously by the name of monks were called out for the labours similar to the labor of general people (徭役). There has seldom been the study that regards the labor of Buddhist monks (僧役) from a perspective of the labor of general people (徭役), so this paper may be thought to be rather provocative. I hope this paper can make a stepstone of the understanding of the labor of Buddhist monks (僧役) in early Joseon period.

신라 중고기의 부방(赴防)과 군역

이정빈(Lee, Jeong-bin) 한국역사연구회 2015 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.97

Examined in this article is ‘who’ were actually required to report for military duties in the mid-ancient period of Shilla. It was the mid-ancient period when the Shilla government started to mobilize its citizens in military duties, and the people who were subjected to such calling were usually believed to have been the local population. But it seems that was only true in case of mobilizations during wartime, and a somewhat different principle might have been applied in peacetime situations. In that regard, we should take a loot at the concept of ‘Bubang(赴防),’ described in a story of a female with the last name Seol(“薛氏女傳”) which was inserted in Samguk Sagi. According to this story, some of the residents in the capital were ordered to serve at border areas. A similar account can be found from the ‘Shilla’ entry of a Chinese historical text Suseo(隋書, History of Su) , which informs us of various types of recruitment manners other than the Bubang practice. Recruited personnel served both in the capital and at border areas. The region they were sent to serve, the unit they were set to serve in, and the manner of their services varied by cases. Local citizens were allowed to serve at their hometowns. We can see that ‘Bubang’ was the military service expected of the capital residents, which was imposed upon some of the males in the age of 18 to 60, and with the status of below the 6 Dupum grade. They would have been selected from households. Recruitment of them commenced in the mid-6th century when the function of the Ministry of Military(兵部) was officially launched and the Daejang(大幢) units were commissioned. The Military Ministry’s authority was expanded to cover wider local regions, enabling the Bubang practice as seen in the aforementioned tale of Seol the female, eventually.