CREDIBILITY OF ANTI-SMOKING MESSAGES ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF HEALTH WARNING MESSAGES: THE MEDIATING ROLES OF PERCEIVED HEALTH AND SOCIAL RISKS

Murat Aktan,Paul Chao 글로벌지식마케팅경영학회 2018 Global Marketing Conference Vol.2018 No.07

Introduction There is ample evidence in the medical research literature to show that the harmful effects of smoking are real. As a result, most governmental agencies around the world attempt to discourage smoking among smokers and nonsmokers alike by requiring cigarette companies to print health-warning messages on their product packages as a means to deter smoking. Little, however, is known about the credibility of these cigarette-warning messages perceived by both smokers and non-smokers alike on the effectiveness of these messages. Other studies have also examined socio-psychological factors other than health warning messages such as peer pressure, bad breadth, et al., (Pechmann, et al, 2003) which can also influence consumer desires whether or not to smoke. No study to our knowledge has incorporated this factor other than just health warning messages in the same model to study this phenomenon. Furthermore, most research on this topic has focused on consumers in western industrialized countries, even though the issues related to smoking can be just as severe in developing countries and warrants more research attention. In this research, we propose to study the credibility of cigarette warning messages on the effectiveness of these messages on deterring smoking behavior and the mediating effects of the perceived health and social risks in an integrated structural equation model (SEM) framework in an emerging country- Turkey. The study should provide insights into how these factors may influence smokers and nonsmokers differently and enable public policy makers to institute programs or strategies targeting the two different segments of consumers. Literature Background and Hypotheses Copious research has reported on the efficacy of Health Warning Message (HWM) in the Health Communications and Marketing literature (for reviews see Hammond, 2011; Noar, et al, 2015; 2016). In the USA, current rules only require health warnings be printed with tiny fonts on cigarette packages. The effectiveness of this format to deter smoking has come into serious questions. Other countries including countries in the EU have long required pictorial depiction of health hazards resulting from smoking be printed on cigarette packages that must occupy a substantial portion (50% or more) of the surface area on the cigarette package. The assumption is that “a picture is worth a thousand words”. However, the results are equivocal at best (Sabbane, et al., 2009). The real impact of HWM continues to be a point for debate as there are other tobacco consumption reduction methods such as increased taxes and smoking bans (Ruiter & Kok, 2005) various governments can and have imposed. Previous research has shown that when consumers believe that smoking behavior leads to unhealthy consequences and is unwise and unattractive, they generally would refrain from engaging in this behavior (Azjen & Fishbein, 1980). However, consumers who think that they are invincible and that these health hazards will never affect them but only other people, may have engaged in the process of rationalization and may actually discount the credibility of these claims. If so, the HWM may become less effective (Kees, et al., 2006). We therefore formulate the following hypothesis: H1: Perceived credibility of HWMs increases the effectiveness of HWMs. On the other hand, the extent to which consumers may perceive that cigarette HWMs to be credible can better persuade them about the health and social risks such as yellow teeth, bad breath, bad smell, et al., leading to social rejection associated with smoking (Pechmann, et al., 2003). Hammond’s review article (2011) provided some evidence that size and the presentation format can enhance the believability of HWMs. We should expect then that a greater perceived credibility will lead to better persuasion. Similarly, Kowitt, et al. (2016) also show in their study that the believability of HWMs vary among the adolescents regarding cigar smoking. Again, the assumption is that if they perceive the messages to be more credible, they will be more effective in persuading them about the harmful effects of smoking. We thus formulate the following two hypotheses: H2: Perceived credibility of HWMs increases negative social risk perception of smoking H3: Perceived credibility of HWMs increase negative health risk perception of smoking Past research has revealed that knowledge about the negative consequences of a behavior can lead to behavior change even though this may be contingent upon how difficult it is to quit a behavior such as smoking (Nourjah, et al., 1994). Consumer behavior literature has confirmed that due to various factors, attitude may not correlate with behavior even in the context of smoking (Ruiter &Kok, 2005; Solomon, 2018). Extant literature suggests that HWMs may be more successful in influencing attitude (Cameron & Williams, 2015). This research focuses on the health risk perception’s potential impact on intention to quit smoking rather than the act of actually quitting smoking. Furthermore, as mentioned earlier, other factors such as smoking ban and price increases, et al. may cause smoking behavior change. Hence we present the following hypothesis: H4: Perceived health risks associated with smoking influence the effectiveness of HWMs. Smoking has become less socially acceptable in western industrialized countries in recent years. Many nations and states have now banned smoking in public places such as colleges, restaurants and airports including second hand smokes. This creates a social stigma for many smokers. Smokers, as a result, has to bear greater social risks these days. This may also cause them to develop a negative attitude toward smoking as well as reducing their intention to smoke (Chuang & Huang, 2012). As Turkey is a country whose citizens care more about social acceptance, we postulate the following hypothesis: H5: Perceived social risks of smoking affect the effectiveness of HWMs. As mentioned earlier, the effectiveness of HWMs may vary according to subjects’ responses to such messages. They may discount the message veracity by a process of rationalization or even by the extent to which they may have been addicted to the habit. This is so particularly for smokers who may have engaged in such behavior for a long time. Hence, one should expect these messages to be more persuasive and thus more effective in dissuading non-smokers from starting the habit. Smokers, on the other hand, are likely to remain unconvinced and view these messages as exaggerations and therefore less affected by these messages (Hammond, 2009; Hahn & Renner, 1998; Pechmann & Knight, 2002). Based on this discussion, we postulate that the impacts of HWMs’ credibility on perceived health and social risks, as well as the messages’ effectiveness will vary depending on the smoking status of the subjects. We expect greater impacts for non-smokers. Therefore, we tested the SEM for smokers and the same model for nonsmokers in this study. The model is shown in Figure 1 in the Appendix. MethodologyWe designed a four parts questionnaire to measure the constructs in the model we used in this study. In the first part of the questionnaire, we first presented the 14 HWMs currently required by law in Turkey to be displayed on cigarette packages. Furthermore, each of these messages is to be rotated on the packages. We then used the semantic differential scale items comprising of five bipolar adjectives derived from previous literature (Beltramini, 1988; Renee & Cameron, 2015) to measure the perceived credibility of HWMs: (1) believable- unbelievable, (2) convincing- unconvincing, (3) reasonable- unreasonable, (4) easy to understand- hard to understand, (5) informativeuninformative. In the second part of the questionnaire, we operationalized the effectiveness construct by asking the respondents to indicate the extent to which they perceived these HWMs as effective on a 1 item semantic differential scale: “HWMs motivate me to quit or not quit smoking” for smokers and “HWMs reduce my curiosity and desire to try smoking” for nonsmokers. In the third part of the questionnaire, we measured health and social risks perceptions by using 4 statements. Respondents were asked to indicate their agreement/disagreement with each of the 5- point Likert scales culled from Kim (2006): Smoking makes me “contract various diseases and become addicted (health risks); Smoking makes me look “stupid, filthy (social risks). The last part of the questionnaire asked respondents about their smoking status and demographics including age, gender and the level of education. We collected the data by posting a copy of the questionnaire online on a website dedicated to discussing higher education issues in Turkey (www.akademikpersonel.org). We obtained an effective sample size of 432 after removing those with incomplete answers. Male and female respondents constituted 50 % of the sample each. The largest percentage of respondents was in the age group of 17 to 22 (35 %). Respondents (249) who have achieved the level of a college undergraduate degree or equivalent on education constituted 58 % of the sample. We conducted Chi-sqaure analyses to test significance of demographic differences between the two groups of smokers and nonsmokers. The results revealed no significant differences on age (χ2/3df=4.83; p=0.185), gender (χ2/1df=2.70; p=0.123) and the level of education (χ2/2df= 0.873; p= 0.646) between the smoking and nonsmoking subsamples. ResultsWe used WarpPLS 5.0 to conduct the structural model analyses as this analysis tool does not require the data set to be normally distributed (Kock & Lynn, 2012). We first tested the measurement scales with respect to their convergent and discriminant validities through standardized factor loadings. We conducted an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). We eliminated two items on the credibility scale, which did not reach at least 0.5 on factor loadings for both subsamples. The two remaining items are “believable” and “convincing”. We then evaluated reliabilities of the scales for both subsamples, results for both subsamples showed that both credibility and health risk scales achieved Cronbach’s α scores higher than 0.7. Even though the Cronbach α score for the two items scale to measure social risk only reached a value of 0.6 for each of the subsample, this is considered adequate due to the smaller number of items used (Field, 2013). We assessed the assumptions of PLS-SEM. Variance inflation factors (VIFs) are well below the recommended 3.30. Hence, both vertical and lateral collinearity assumptions were met, thus deemed to be free from the common method bias (Kock & Lynn, 2012). We then evaluated convergent and discriminant validities of the latent construct. Discriminant validity was achieved as the square roots of AVE (average variance extracted) scores were higher than and correlation of the factor with another measure (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). For each subsample, composite reliabilities of all factors were higher than 0.8 and indicators’ loadings higher than 0.5 on the latent constructs. Thus, all scales used in the model achieved convergent validities for each subsample. We then proceeded to test the structural model for each of the subsamples. The results showed that for nonsmokers, the model explained 12% of total variance in the effectiveness of HWMs and for smokers 33%. All path coefficients were significant for nonsmokers except the health risks → HWMs effectiveness (β= 0.05, p= 0.23). Other path coefficients all showed significance as follows: perceived credibility of HWMs → perceived health risks (β= 0.154, p= 0.01), perceived credibility → perceived social risks (β= 0.148, p= 0.014), perceived credibility of HWMs → perceived effectiveness (β= 0.285, p < 0.01) and perceived social risk → perceived effectiveness (β= 0.148, p < 0.014). For the smokers’ subsample, the path coefficient between the perceived health risks and effectiveness was also shown to be non-significant (β= 0.06, p= 0.19). All other path coefficients all showed significance as follows: perceived credibility of HWMs → perceived health risks (β= 0.197, p < 0.01), perceived credibility → perceived social risks (β= 0.247, p< 0.001), perceived credibility of HWMs → perceived effectiveness (β= 0.503, p < 0.001) and perceived social risk → perceived effectiveness (β= 0.213, p < 0.001). These results confirmed H1, H2, H3 and H5 but not H4 for both smokers and nonsmokers. Discussion and Conclusion This study reveals some useful insights about how HWMs on cigarette packages may influence smokers and nonsmokers differently in an emerging country- Turkey, which can be used by public policy makers to formulate effective anti-smoking campaigns to target the two groups. The effect sizes appeared to be greater for smokers than nonsmokers. This suggests that if these HWMs can be crafted to be perceived as more credible, the smokers can be more persuaded to quit smoking than for nonsmokers to start smoking. These results appear to be consistent across the board whether we are considering the direct effect or indirect effects through the mediating variables. This is perhaps somewhat consistent with what we would expect based on our earlier discussions. Smokers may be more resistant to HWMs due to the fact they are already engaged in such behavior and therefore more likely to discount the messages as well as the associated health and social risk perceptions. For nonsmokers, on the other hand, it may not take as much to convince them about the harmful effects of smoking and therefore greater perceived credibility of HWMs may be less critical in persuading them not to start smoking. It is important then when designing such HWMs to consider carefully whether these messages are perceived to be credible. Some of the US cigarette warning messages printed in tiny scripts are ambiguous such as smoking can be harmful to your health clearly can not be expected to be highly credible. Research has also shown that pictorial messages can be more persuasive. However, research has also shown that the results are far from being conclusive (Sabbane, et al., 2009). More research is warranted, especially in emerging countries. It is also interesting to note that social risks perceptions are more persuasive than health risks perceptions. Future communications strategies should place a greater emphasis on this factor and not just on health risks. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research Although our study is able to provide some useful insights into how perceived credibility of HWMs can influence the effectiveness in deterring smoking among nonsmokers and smokers alike either directly or indirectly through perceived health and social risks, we would like to point out several limitations of this study. First, we collected our data online using a web portal in Turkey that focuses on discussing higher education issues in general and therefore the respondents’ level of education is higher than the general population as well as the age group being younger. Future study should collect data from other age groups and education levels to produce results that are more generalizable. We conducted our study in one emerging country- Turkey. In future studies, more countries should be included. As the results revealed the prominence of social risks over health risks in influencing the effectiveness of anti-smoking campaigns, the issue about how to promote the social wellbeing of not smoking (promotional) versus the health risks aspects of the campaign warrants further research.

연설자의 공신력 각인 발화가 설득 효과에 미치는 영향

박준홍 ( Park Junhong ),박성석 ( Park Seongseog ) 한국화법학회 2021 화법연구 Vol.- No.51

The purpose of this study is to investigate how the speaker's credibility-imprinting utterance affects the whole process of persuasion, and based on the results, suggest the contents of credibility-oriented persuasion education. To accomplish this purpose, the concept of the “speaker's credibility-imprinting-utterance” was established, and its role in the entire persuasion process including acquisition of credibility was examined through experimental treatment and statistical analysis centered on conditional process analysis. As a result, three main findings were drawn. First, the direct effect of “the speaker's credibility-imprinting-utterance → post-credibility” was .31, the direct effect of “prior credibility → post-credibility” was .17, and both effects were statistically significant. Second, the correlation coefficient between message sidedness and post-credibility was -.00, therefore the correlation of message sidedness and post-credibility was not significant statistically. Third, post-credibility showed a direct effect of .81 only on the attitude toward speech, and did not have a direct effect on the attitude and behavioral intention of the speech subject. The causes of the research results were analyzed, and the contents of persuasion education were suggested.

인터넷 뉴스 미디어의 신뢰도에 관한 실험 연구

반현 한국방송학회 2003 한국방송학보 Vol.17 No.2

The purpose of the study is to examine a causal relationship between interactivity and users’ credibility in Internet news media. To achieve the purpose, the study examined the factors influencing the credibility. And, the credibility factors of traditional news media were analyzed and compared. Finally, this study was interested in examining a causal relationship between interactivity and Internet news credibility. An experiment was conducted to measure Internet news credibility under two different conditions. One news site has a higher level of interactive features, such as a search engine, e-mails to individual reporters, opinion forum, and so on. The other has a lower level of interactivity, only including an e-mail to webmaster. A total of 12 credibility items were measured for this study. The study found four major factors explain the credibility of Internet news media. They ares journalistic value, public responsibility, sensational- ism, and fairness. On the other hand, three factors which affect on the credibility of traditional news media were journalistic value, public responsi- bility, and market-oriented journalism. This implies that while more various factors explain the Internet news credibility, mainly traditional journalistic value plays a significant role in the formation of traditional new credibility. Finally, given that no significant relationship was found between inter- activity of Internet news media and credibility, this study discusses some reasons: first, interactivity might not be an important predictor variable on Internet news credibility; second, the experimental design of the study has some methodological limitations, such as being restricted to one exposure or not having much difference in two levels of experimental treatment.

매체 신뢰도와 의구심 및 지각된 설득 의도가 설득 메시지의 효과에 미치는 영향

김정현(Junghyun Kim) 서울대학교 언론정보연구소 2008 언론정보연구 Vol.45 No.1

본 연구는 정보원으로서 설득 매체의 신뢰도와 의구심을 다룬 연구들 및 설득지식모델을 토대로 설득 매체의 신뢰도와 의구심, 그리고 지각된 설득 의도는 어떤 관계를 맺고 있는가 및 이 변인들이 설득 메시지의 효과에 영향을 미치는가를 알아보고자 하는 의도에서 수행되었다. 이를 위해 세 가지 연구 문제를 설정하고 이에 대한 가설을 세워 검증해보았는데 연구 결과는 다음과 같다. 먼저 【연구문제 1】은 설득 매체의 신뢰도가 매체 의구심에 어떠한 영향을 미치는가를 알아보는 것이다. 연구 결과 예상한 바대로 신뢰도가 높은 매체가 전달하는 메시지에 접한 경우 낮은 매체가 전달하는 메시지에 접한 경우보다 매체 의구심이 적게 발생하는 것으로 나타났다. 【연구문제 2】는 설득 매체의 신뢰도가 지각된 설득 의도에 어떠한 영향을 미치는가를 알아보는 것이다. 연구 결과 피험자인 대학생들이 대체로 설득 의도를 잘 지각한다고 생각하는 것으로 나타났다. 이로 인해 설득 매체의 신뢰도가 높거나 낮은 집단 모두의 경우에 지각된 설득 의도가 높게 나타나 매체 신뢰도에 따른 지각된 설득 의도의 차이는 나타나지 않았다. 【연구문제 3】은 설득 매체의 신뢰도와 의구심 및 지각된 설득 의도는 설득 메시지의 효과에 어떠한 영향을 미치는가를 알아보는 것이다. 연구 결과 예상한 바대로 신뢰도가 높은 매체가 전달하는 광고에 접한 경우 낮은 매체가 전달하는 광고에 접한 경우보다 광고에 대한 태도가 긍정적인 것으로 나타났다. 아울러 매체 의구심이 광고에 대한 태도에 미치는 영향은 네 집단(〈동아일보〉/〈일요신문〉 × 다이어트 기기 광고/베개 광고) 가운데 한 집단(〈일요신문〉에 게재된 베개 광고에 노출된 집단)을 제외한 경우에, 그리고 지각된 설득 의도가 광고에 대한 태도에 미치는 영향은 〈일요신문〉에 게재된 광고에 노출된 두 집단의 경우에서만 유의미한 것으로 나타났다. 이상과 같은 연구 결과를 종합해 볼 때 설득 매체의 신뢰도는 의구심과 부적 관계에 있으며 설득 메시지의 효과와는 정적 관계에 있음을 알 수 있다. 아울러 매체에 대한 의구심과 지각된 설득 의도도 설득 메시지의 효과와 관련이 있는 중요한 변인이라 할 수 있다. 이러한 결과는 설득 효과를 제고하기 위한 설득 전략 수립에 있어 유의미한 시사점을 제공해줄 수 있을 것이다. Based on studies on media credibility & skepticism of media and the persuasion knowledge model, this study aims to understand the relationship among media credibility, skepticism of media, and perceived intention and identify these variables' influence on the effect of persuasive message. To this end, I set three research questions, formulated hypotheses regarding them, and tested the hypotheses, and the results are as follows: First, Research Question 1 is to know the impact of media credibility on skepticism of media. As expected, those exposed to media with high credibility had less skepticism of media message than those exposed to media with low credibility. Second, Research Question 2 is to see media credibility's influence on perceived intention. As a result, study participants who are university students thought that they well recognized persuasive intention. Both those exposed to media with high credibility and those exposed to media with low credibility well recognized persuasive intention, thus media credibility didn't create difference in perceived intention. Third, Research Question 3 is to examine the influence of media credibility, skepticism of media, and perceived intention on the effect of persuasive message. As expected, those who saw an advertisement in media with high credibility had more positive attitude toward the advertisement than those who saw an advertisement in media with low credibility. Moreover, there were four experiment groups: those who saw an advertisement for a diet machine in Dong-A Ilbo, those who saw an advertisement for a pillow in Dong-A Ilbo, those who saw an advertisement for a diet machine in Ilyo Shinmun, and those who saw an advertisement for a pillow in Ilyo Shinmun. As a result, the impact of skepticism of media on attitude toward the advertisement was meaningful for three groups except the one group who saw the advertisement for a pillow in Ilyo Shinmun, while the effect of perceived intention on attitude toward the advertisement was meaningful for two groups who saw the advertisements in Ilyo Shinmun. Overall, media credibility seems to have a negative relationship with skepticism of media, while having a positive correlation with the effect of persuasive message. Moreover, skepticism of media and perceived intention seem to be a significant variable related to the effect of persuasive message. These study results will have meaningful implications for devising a persuasion strategy to enhance persuasive effects.

소비자의 가치 추구 동인이 블로그 리뷰의 신뢰성 지각에 미치는 영향: 유대강도에 따른 조절효과를 중심으로

주우진,노민정 한국마케팅학회 2012 ASIA MARKETING JOURNAL Vol.13 No.4

What attracts consumers to bloggers’ reviews? Consumers would be attracted both by the Bloggers’ expertise (i.e., knowledge and experience) and by his/her unbiased manner of delivering information. Expertise and trustworthiness are both virtues of information sources, particularly when there is uncertainty in decision-making. Noting this point, we postulate that consumers’ motives determine the relative weights they place on expertise and trustworthiness. In addition, our hypotheses assume that tie strength moderates consumers’ expectation on bloggers’ expertise and trustworthiness: with expectation on expertise enhanced for power-blog user-group (weak-ties), and an expectation on trustworthiness elevated for personal-blog user-group (strong-ties). Finally, we theorize that the effect of credibility on willingness to accept a review is moderated by tie strength; the predictive power of credibility is more prominent for the personal-blog user-groups than for the power-blog user groups. To support these assumptions, we conducted a field survey with blog users, collecting retrospective self-report data. The “gourmet shop” was chosen as a target product category, and obtained data analyzed by structural equations modeling. Findings from these data provide empirical support for our theoretical predictions. First, we found that the purposive motive aimed at satisfying instrumental information needs increases reliance on bloggers’ expertise, but interpersonal connectivity value for alleviating loneliness elevates reliance on bloggers’ trustworthiness. Second, expertise-based credibility is more prominent for power-blog user-groups than for personal- blog user-groups. While strong ties attract consumers with trustworthiness based on close emotional bonds, weak ties gain consumers’ attention with new, non-redundant information (Levin & Cross, 2004). Thus, when the existing knowledge system, used in strong ties, does not work as smoothly for addressing an impending problem, the weak-tie source can be utilized as a handy reference. Thus, we can anticipate that power bloggers secure credibility by virtue of their expertise while personal bloggers trade off on their trustworthiness. Our analysis demonstrates that power bloggers appeal more strongly to consumers than do personal bloggers in the area of expertise-based credibility. Finally, the effect of review credibility on willingness to accept a review is higher for the personal- blog user-group than for the power-blog user-group. Actually, the inference that review credibility is a potent predictor of assessing willingness to accept a review is grounded on the analogy that attitude is an effective indicator of purchase intention. However, if memory about established attitudes is blocked, the predictive power of attitude on purchase intention is considerably diminished. Likewise, the effect of credibility on willingness to accept a review can be affected by certain moderators. Inspired by this analogy, we introduced tie strength as a possible moderator and demonstrated that tie strength moderated the effect of credibility on willingness to accept a review. Previously, Levin and Cross (2004) showed that credibility mediates strong-ties through receipt of knowledge, but this credibility mediation is not observed for weak-ties, where a direct path to it is activated. Thus, the predictive power of credibility on behavioral intention – that is, willingness to accept a review − is expected to be higher for strong-ties. 블로그의 상품 리뷰가 소비자의 주목을 끄는 데에는 정보 원천인 블로거에 대한 신뢰가 자리잡고 있다. 블로거가 해당 상품 카테고리와 관련하여 충분한 지식 및 경험을 습득하고 있다는 전문성에 대한 믿음, 그리고 어떤 다른 이해 관계에 얽매여 정보를 왜곡하려는 등의 불순한 의도를 지니고 있지 않다는 진실성에 대한 믿음이 있기에 소비자들은 구매 의사 결정에 뒤따르는 불확실성을 줄일 요량으로 블로그의 상품 리뷰를 참조하게 된다. 본 연구는 이러한 점에 착안하여 소비자들이 리뷰 정보를 통해 추구하는 가치 동인이 무엇이냐에 따라 신뢰성의 하위 차원인 전문성 및 진실성에 이르는 경로 계수의 비중이 분화하며, 나아가 유대 강도의 강약에 따라 전문성 및 진실성 기반 신뢰성에 대한 기대치가 분기하게 될 것이라 예측하였다. 아울러, 유대 강도가 태도로서의 신뢰성이 리뷰 수용 의사에 대해 갖는 예측력에 조절 효과를 미쳐 파워블로그 사용 집단에서보다 개인블로그 사용 집단에서 이러한 예측력이 보다 고양될 것이라 가정하였다. 분석 결과, 도구적 정보 니즈를 충족시키고자 하는 유목적적 가치 동인은 정보 원천의 전문성에 대한 기대 의존도를 증폭시키지만, 고립감을 해소하고자 하는 대인간 연결의 가치 동인은 정보 원천의 진실성에 대한 의존도를 높이는 것으로 나타났다. 그리고, 전문성에 대한 기대치는 강한 유대 관계의 개인블로그 사용 집단에서보다 약한 유대 관계의 파워블로그 사용 집단에서 보다 증진되며, 태도로서의 신뢰성이 리뷰 수용 의사에 대해 갖는 예측력은 파워블로그 사용 집단에서보다 개인블로그 사용 집단에서 보다 고양되는 것으로 나타났다.

형사소송법상 특신상태의 의미와개념 요소 및 판단기준에 관한 소고

김정한 ( Kim Jeong Han ) 한국비교형사법학회 2014 비교형사법연구 Vol.16 No.1

A large number of the exceptions of hear-say rule under paragraph of article 312 section 1 etc. require “the circumstance of special credibility”. Meanwhile, theories or precedents have not been examined deeply about correct meaning of the circumstance of special credibility, and they have been mixed up credibility itself and voluntariness with the circumstance of special credibility. But the exceptions of hear-say rule must admit under the strict standard and that is more important in the circumstance of special credibility``s application and interpretation. The circumstance of special credibility is "circumstantial guarantee of especially strict credibility" beyond the general circumstantial guarantee which can be require in another hear-say evidence. In other word, the circumstance of special credibility should be judged by exterior circumstances in that times of statement. Practical operation is more important than theory about the circumstance of special credibility. In fact, we were less interested in the circumstance of special credibility than accordance between statement and written evidence. Also, prosecutors didn``t make a effort to prove and judges didn``t judge strictly by the accurate standard. In this courses, the exceptions of hear-say evidence have been used widely, in these days people are confused whether it is principle or exception. Of course, there was much trying to strenthen the requierment of the exception of hearsay evidence, for exemple, limiting the report by questioning the capacity of evidence. However, most important thing is that by the effective operation of the stipulated requirements we can prevent the using of the unadmissible evidence. On the other hand, I wish to rectify the unconcern and the fallacy about the circumstance of special credibility, so the evil that admissibility of evidence is denied unreasonabliy vanish.

인터넷 검색 광고 효과과정에서 정보원 신뢰도의 영향력 및 광고 신뢰도의 매개효과 연구

신동희(Dong Hee Shin),장우성(Woo Sung Chang) 사이버커뮤니케이션학회 2010 사이버 커뮤니케이션 학보 Vol.27 No.1

본 연구는 인터넷 검색 광고를 통하여 정보원 신뢰도와 광고 신뢰도가 광고 효과과정에 미치는 영향력을 살펴보고, 특히 정보원 신뢰도와 광고효과변수 사이에서 광고 신뢰도가 어떠한 역할을 하는가를 규명하려는 목적으로 수행되었다. 이를 위하여 2009년 9월 16일부터 동년 9월 22일까지 일주일 동안 서울 및 충청지역 대학의 컴퓨터 실습실에 협조를 요청하여 컴퓨터를 사용 중인 학생들에게 구조화된 설문지를 배포하는 서베이 방법을 통해 데이터를 수집하였다. 연구문제 1은 정보원 신뢰도 수준별 광고효과 차이를 살펴보는 것이다. 분석 결과 정보원을 높게 신뢰하는 응답자들에게서 상대적으로 높은 광고 태도와 클릭의도가 나타나고 있었다. 그리고 연구문제 2는 정보원 신뢰도와 광고 신뢰도 그리고 광고 효과변수 간의 관계, 특히 광고 신뢰도의 매개효과 여부를 살펴보는 것이다. 분석 결과 정보원 신뢰도가 광고 태도에 미치는 영향력은 부분매개모형으로 나타났다. 즉 검색 포털 사이트의 신뢰도는 직접 검색 광고 태도에 영향을 미치기도 하고, 검색 광고 신뢰도를 경유하여 영향을 미치기도 하는 것으로 나타났다. The purpose of this study is to find out the influence of source credibility and advertising credibility through internet search advertising, have on the process of advertising effect, and in particular, to examine the role of advertising credibility on source credibility and advertising effect variables. For this study, the data was collected through surveys in university computer labs located in Seoul and Chungcheong Province. Research thesis 1 looks at the difference of advertising effect related to the level of source credibility. The study founded that respondents have shown higher advertising attitude and clicks in sources they highly trust. The research thesis 2 looks at the relationship between source credibility, advertising credibility and advertising effect variables; the effect of advertising credibility’s role as a mediation in particular. The study founded that the effect of source credibility on advertising attitude is shaped as a partial mediation model. In other words, the credibility of search sites directly affect the attitude towards advertising, and may have influence by routing the search advertising credibility.

메시지 특성이 이미지 신뢰도 평가에 미치는 영향에 관한 연구

조연석,남정인,백현미 한국정보사회학회 2022 정보사회와 미디어 Vol.23 No.2

With technological advances, anyone can now easily edit and distribute digital images in online communities and social media. However, as abuses of fake images online increase, evaluating image credibility distributed online becomes increasingly important. Fake images tend to be presented with one’s arguments expressed by text, and thus, text messages presented with images are essential factors in image credibility evaluation. Moreover, research showed that individuals tend to evaluate images as credible when containing contents consistent with their beliefs. This study examined how message characteristics, that is, argument quality, language intensity, and belief consistency, impact image credibility. Specifically, the study investigated how argument quality and language intensity affect image credibility assessment and how belief consistency moderates this relationship. In this context, a total of 492 participants were subjected to an experimental study through an online survey. Two characteristics were combined in a 2 × 2 experimental design for this study: argument quality and language intensity. The results showed that no main effects of argument quality exist, but the main effects are identified with language intensity and belief consistency. That is, participants who were exposed to strong language and/or who had a low level of belief consistency rated image credibility more negatively. Moreover, the results showed that the impact of argument quality and language intensity on image credibility is moderated by belief consistency. In other words, when the level of belief consistency is high, the positive effect of argument quality on image credibility increases. However, the effect of language intensity on image credibility is not significant. On the contrary, when the level of belief consistency is low, the negative effect of language intensity on image credibility increases. In this respect, the impact of argument quality on image credibility is not significant. This study filled the gap of image credibility studies, particularly images presented with text messages in the online community. In addition, the results of the moderating effects of belief consistency on image credibility evaluation help to understand the image reliability evaluation process and suggest further consideration in future research. Meanwhile, this study is expected to be utilized to solve problems concerning fake images, which have recently emerged as social problems. Thus, the media literacy of individuals will become more important to identify and evaluate fake images in the online community and social media. 본 연구는 메시지 품질, 언어 강도, 그리고 메시지와의 신념 일치가 그 메시지와 함께 제시되는 이미지 신뢰도 평가에 미치는 영향을 실증적으로 검증하고자 하였다. 이를 위해 메시지 품질과 언어 강도에 따라 집단 간 실험설계를 진행하였다. 연구 결과, 메시지 품질에 따른 주효과는 나타나지 않았으나, 언어 강도, 신념 일치에 따른 주효과를 확인할 수 있었다. 구체적으로, 이미지와 함께 제시되는 메시지의 언어 강도가 낮을수록 이미지의 신뢰도를 높게 평가하였고, 메시 지의 내용이 자신의 신념과 일치할수록 이미지의 신뢰도를 높게 평가하였다. 또한 언어 강도와 이미지 신뢰도 사이의 관계는 신념 일치에 의해 조절되었으며, 메시지 품질과 이미지 신뢰도 사 이의 관계 역시 신념 일치에 의해 조절되었다. 신념 일치 수준이 낮을 경우, 언어 강도가 이미지 신뢰도에 미치는 부정적 영향이 강화되었으며, 메시지 품질은 유의한 영향을 끼치지 않았다. 신념 일치 수준이 높을 경우, 메시지 품질이 이미지 신뢰도에 미치는 긍정적인 영향이 강화되었으며, 언어 강도는 유의한 영향을 끼치지 않았다. 본 연구는 최근 사회적 문제로 대두되고 있는 가짜 이미지에 대한 대처 방안 마련을 위해 유용하게 활용될 수 있을 것으로 기대된다.

THE EFFECTS OF A SPOKESPERSON TOWARDS A CUSTOMER'S BEHAVIOURAL INTENTIONS: THE CASE OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION NGO

Toyohiko Sugimoto,Alastair Tombs 글로벌지식마케팅경영학회 2016 Global Marketing Conference Vol.2016 No.7

Introduction The over population of wild and feral animals is increasing as an environmental problem in many parts of the world due the pressure on native flora and ecosystems. (BBC, 2013; Hall, 2015; Kaji, Saitoh, Uno, Matsuda, & Yamamura, 2010). Examples include deer in Northern Japan and Northeast USA, the urban fox in England, possums in New Zealand and the crown of thorns starfish in the Great Barrier Reef. This phenomenon is also happening in Australia. Recent news reports of huge kangaroo populations devastating grazing land in western Queensland (Arthur, 2015) and a spike in Koalas eating away their habitat in the Cape Otway area of Victoria (Paul, 2015) have highlighted this problem. While the overpopulation of koalas is causing environmental damage to natural gum trees, to the point that they will not regenerate, it is difficult to enforce population control because these animals hold such as positive place as an Australian symbolic animal. Hence, there is some controversy whether they should be culled by environment advocates as part of an ongoing population/environmental management program. To help facilitate appropriate wildlife management in light of the controversial environmental problems, Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) play an essential role as a conduit between government and local citizens. For example, Australian Koala Foundation contributes to the conservation and management of the wild Koala through conducting strategic research for Koala management, conservation and community education in Australia (Australian Koala Foundation, 2015). However, NGOs are currently faced with challenges, such as acquisition of funds to support such work and gathering supporters for volunteer activities. This is because the competitiveness in the not-for-profit-sector has intensified due to an increase in the number of NGOs and oligopoly of donation share by high-profile NGOs (Foster & Fine, 2007; Sunder, 2015). To deal with these challenges NGO’s are resorting to more commercial types of marketing communications such as the use of celebrity endorsement or using celebrities as spokespeople. Although using celebrities as spokespeople for the NGO sector has become a common advertising strategy (De los Salmones, Dominguez, & Herrero, 2013; Wheeler, 2009), research into what kind of characteristics of spokesperson would lead effectively to change customer's attitude and behavioural intentions is limited. This celebrity/cause match is especially important for many environmental NGOs who have to deal with controversial environmental problems (e.g. wildlife management for overpopulated animals). This research examines the differences between the relevant expertise and perceived attractiveness of the celebrity spokesperson and its effect on the public’s perception of trustworthiness of the NGO. As the role of the celebrity spokesperson to encourage the public’s intentions to donate increases another issue arises: can the same strategy be used to solicit the donation of time (by volunteers)? This latter dilemma is something that is rarely experienced in the for-profit or commercial sector. This study presents a conceptual model that may help to identify answers to these questions and will extend the current research on celebrity endorsement. It should also bring out new academic insights about the process of building source credibility and a detailed evaluation of the spokesperson’s role in creating a two dimensional approach to behavioural intentions. Literature review Celebrity endorsement is a common advertising technique used by many organisations to build an association between a well-known and well-liked personality and the company’s brand in order to increase consumer’s awareness and liking for the brand (Spry, Pappu, & Bettina Cornwell, 2011). By utilizing the endorsement of a celebrity spokesperson, the product/service, band and/or company is able to leverage the positive attributes and characteristics of the spokesperson to the advantage of that product, band and/or company image (Erdogan, 1999; Ohanian, 1990). Recently, this strategy of utilizing celebrities as credible spokespeople has been adopted by many socially purposed organisations and NGOs (De los Salmones, et al., 2013; Samman, Auliffe, & MacLachlan, 2009; Wheeler, 2009). In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the spokesperson, source credibility is used as a key measure. The source credibility is defined as ‘a communicator's positive characteristics that affect the receiver's acceptance of a message’ (Ohanian, 1990, p. 41). The concept of source credibility has been established through the development of two important models: source credibility model and source attractiveness model. The source credibility model, proposed by Hovland, Janis, and Kelley (1953), suggests that the effectiveness of a message depends on perceived level of expertise and trustworthiness in an endorser (Erdogan, 1999). Hovland, et al. (1953) analyze the factors which lead to the perceived credibility of the spokesperson and defined that two essential items of source credibility namely, expertise and trustworthiness. Moreover, the source attractiveness model, takes a social psychological perspective (McGuire, 1985) and is defined as another important factor that is likely to affect customers’ perception of the brand. The source attractiveness model explains that the effectiveness of a message depends on source's 'familiarity', 'likability', 'similarity', and 'attractiveness' to the respondent (Erdogan, 1999). This model brings about the idea that attractiveness is also a factor determining source credibility. Ohanian (1990) combines these two models and defines the construct of endorser source credibility as consisting of three sub-dimension items (i.e. expertise, trustworthiness, attractiveness). By adopting the source credibility model, researchers have studied the effects of spokesperson on customer's attitudes and behavioural intentions in various research settings and conditions (Amos, Holmes, & Strutton, 2008; Erdogan, 1999; Lafferty & Goldsmith, 1999; Ohanian, 1991). However, a comprehensive review of the literature reveals that some gaps still exist in the work that has been undertaken in this field. Firstly, rather than source credibility consisting of three independent variables (expertise, trustworthiness, attractiveness) Busch and Wilson (1976) and Johnson and Grayson (2005) suggest that for trust building within service marketing and sales research, the constructs of expertise and attractiveness are regarded as antecedent factors of trustworthiness. This approach has not been used in research into celebrity endorsement. Secondly, although most studies have dealt with concept of behavioural intentions as a unidimensional concept, this unidimensional way could make the actual effects of spokesperson unclear because different behavioural intentions may hold different meanings, for different potential sponsors resulting in different forms of donation. In service quality research Zeithaml, Berry, and Parasuraman (1996) confirm that different types of service quality may influence differently any one of five different behavioural intentions (i.e. loyalty, switch, pay more, external response, and internal response). Thus, different types of celebrity endorser (expert or attractive) could also influence different types of behavioural intentions. For example the attributes of celebrity endorser may have an influence on whether someone would be more inclined to donate money, to donate time (volunteer for the organisation), and/or spread positive word of mouth. Conceptual framework & hypotheses development Although this study investigates the effects of the various combinations of endorser's characteristics on customer’s attitudes and behavioural intentions, research shows that different endorser’s characteristics do affect different customer attitudes and behaviour (Eisend & Langner, 2010; Lord & Putrevu, 2009). Lord and Putrevu (2009) find that attractiveness drives customer's behavioural intentions when customer's motivation is transformational (i.e. affective), whereas expertise and trustworthiness are influential when their motivation is informational (i.e. cognitive). Eisend and Langner (2010) reveal that attractiveness is a determinant of positive customer attitudes in the immediate condition (i.e. ad effects after just 60 seconds), whereas expertise is effective in the delayed condition (i.e. ad effects after one or three days). They also found that a high-expertise and high-attractiveness endorser is particularly effective towards customer attitudes in both conditions. Thus, considering the different effects on customer’s attitudes by different endorser’s characteristics our research objective is to examine which type of spokesperson is more effective in influencing a customer's attitudes and behavioural intentions for NGOs dealing with controversial environmental problems. In addition to solving the research objective, the research will also fill the research gaps indicated through the literature review. Our model (See Figure 1) shows that both the expertise and attractiveness of a celebrity spokesperson will lead to consumers’ perception of the trustworthiness of that spokesperson. Considering the insights from the perspective of trust building processes in the services marketing and sales literature, the celebrity’s expertise and/or attractiveness as antecedent factors of trustworthiness should also have an effect on organisation credibility through trustworthiness as a mediator. Moreover, we propose that the effects of a spokesperson’s expertise and/or attractiveness will influence differently the organisational credibility depending on the level of issue controversy they deal with. For example, Wheeler (2009) found that a celebrity endorser that showed a logical connection with the organisation increased organisational credibility and behavioural intentions. Therefore it is expected that for an environmental NGO that has to deal with controversial issues (such as reducing numbers of animals in habitats under stress from overgrazing) an expert spokesperson may well be a better fit and gain more trust and therefore more credibility for the organisation than an attractive one. However, where the issue the spokesperson is dealing with is not controversial this pattern may well reverse with an attractive celebrity being the more effective spokesperson. From this point of view, the level of issue controversy that the NGO deals with is hypothesized as a moderator between both expertise and attractiveness and trustworthiness. The customer’s perception of both the trustworthiness/credibility of the celebrity chosen as spokesperson and the credibility of the organisation will influence their (the customer’s) attitudes toward the organisation. In the model we follow Amos, et al. (2008) and Erdogan (1999) in asserting that positive organisational credibility will positively influence attitudes toward the firm. From the view that a unidimensional behavioural intention could make actual outcomes unclear, three behavioural intentions (i.e. donation of time, donation of money, word of mouth) options are proposed. This distinction is especially important when considering that many NGOs unlike for-profit organisations have a need to both increase financial resources and human resources. The NGO/celebrity endorser conceptual model is presented in figure 1. Conclusion & future research direction The conceptual model developed in this study research has implications for both academics and managers. Firstly, as an academic contribution, the idea that expertise and attractiveness contributes to trustworthiness, which is reported in trust building in service marketing, should raise new considerations about source credibility building process in celebrity endorsement research. Moreover, the moderating influence of the degree of controversy will play an important part in that relationship, especially for NGOs having to deal with controversial issues such as culling wildlife to protect the environment. The approach that multiple types of behavioural intentions are important outcomes may also enable a more detailed evaluation of the effects of celebrity spokespeople. The interactions between spokesperson characteristics (e.g. expertise, attractiveness) and the three behavioural intentions should be further investigated within the celebrity endorser field of research. Secondly, since the literature which evaluates the effect of celebrity endorsement for NGOs in the context of controversial social issues has been still under-researched, the outcomes of this research will be valuable for most NGO managers struggling with same issues. Moreover, by applying multiple behavioural intentions, more detailed insights how to increase each behavioural intention (i.e. donation of money, donation of time, positive word of mouth) through assigning different spokesperson with different characteristics (i.e. attractiveness and expertise) may enable NGOs to more flexible in assigning a suitable spokesperson. The characteristics of the spokesperson may need to change depending on the resource acquisition requirements the NGO has at that time. Hence, this research will provide meaningful insights from the both academic and managerial perspectives. As a future research direction, in order to validate this conceptual model it is suggested that a between subjects experiment be conducted. The experiment could consist of a scenario whereby a spokesperson is trying to gain public support for the activities of an environmental NGO. Here one could manipulate the expertise (high vs low) and the attractiveness (high vs low) of the spokesperson and the message (controversial vs non-controversial) to establish if differences in the spokesperson characteristics would have an effect on the different behavioural intentions of the respondents.

온라인 여행후기 내용특성이 메시지 신뢰에 미치는 영향

양영순(Yung Shoon Yang),이희찬(Hee Chan Lee) 한국호텔외식관광경영학회 2014 호텔경영학연구 Vol.23 No.2

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of travel review content attributes on message credibility according to a message sender`s credibility level. For this purpose, this study manipulated 4 types of travel review contents(positive vs. negative, concrete vs. abstractive) presented in captured web-pages similar to an actual onlinereview web-site. Results of this study are summarized as follow. First, 4 types of content attributes in travel review have significantly influenced on message credibility. Specifically, a negative message has a positive effect on message credibility in comparison with a positive message. It implies that potential travelers are easily influenced by the negative message than the positive message. The abstractive message has a negative effect on a messagecredibility in comparison with a concrete message. Second, the message credibility is significantly moderated by the level of the message sender`s credibility. In a high level of the sender`s credibility, there is a less effect of message contents on message credibility whereas the effect of message contents on message credibility is higher in its lowlevel. The negative message has influenced on a massage credibility in a low level of sender`s credibility but has no effect significantly in a high level of it. Since the level of the sender`s credibility influences message credibility, it is necessary to understand how usersperceive each web-site`s credibility level. And it is also important to build trusted relationship with users to minimize the negative effect of travel review.