소비에트와 러시아연방의 민족어 정책 고찰: -국가 정체성과의 관련성을 중심으로-

남혜현 ( Hye Hyun Nam ) 연세대학교 유럽사회문화연구소 2015 유럽사회문화 Vol.0 No.14

Language is a core element in the formation of national identity. Especially, a close connection between language and society exists in the history of Russia. This article is devoted to the consideration of the policies of the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation concerning national languages of ethnic societies. The Soviet Union and the Russian Federation are the multinational state, where ethnic questions are of particular relevance. Therefore they attached great importance to language policies. Today the government of the Russian Federation guarantees all its peoples the right to preserve their native languages and provides conditions for their studies and development. At the same time the government maintains the Russian language as a state language of the Russian Federation throughout its territory. In particular, the government considers the Russian language as an important factor of national security, believing that the strengthening of its status corresponds to the strategic interests of the state. Such a belief formed the basis of russian language policies, such as "On languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation", "Law on a state language of the Russian Federation" and the federal target programs "Russian 2001-2005", "Russian 2006-2010". These laws and programs, directed to the protection and development of language culture, establish Cyrillics as a graphic basis in all republics of the federation and give the Russian language status of official state language. In conclusion, the modern Russian language policies are characterized by two opposite directions of the soviet language policies, namely the one to ensure the equality of the national languages and the other to strive to Russify the rest of the nations.

Ambivalence of a “Nation=Language Community” and Transnational History

전성곤 한국국제문화교류학회 2020 문화교류와 다문화교육 Vol.9 No.3

This paper examined the ambivalence of language and education that is inherent in nation states. The Gyegan Samcheolli, a quarterly magazine published by Korean/Joseon residents in Japan after the 2nd world war, provides sources that address the issues of language and education and problems in the ambivalence of a nation state. This paper, however, did not intend to deal with language and textbooks simply as the object of criticism. Rather, it attempted to address the ‘restraint’ and ‘liberation’ of individual perceptions created by language and textbooks. To this end, this paper first looked at the attributes of language. It has an incantatory nature as it controls human perceptions, but, on the contrary, there is also a possibility that one can form a new cognition through language. The restraint by language was clearly demonstrated by the colonial rule of Korea by Japan. During the occupation era, Japan propagated the ideology of “(national) language=state” by emphasizing the similarities between Korean and Japanese languages. This was part of the policy to turn Korean into Japanese supported by the national language ideology established by state power, which aimed at dominating Koreans in the world of Japanese language. Meanwhile, the Gyegan Samcheolli explained the problem of the premise “single-state=national language” by examining the process in which Japanese people and Korean/Joseon residents in Japan learned Korean after the war. It brought about the awakening of consciousness that was domesticated by the trinity of “Japanese people=Japanese language=Japan.” The process of learning Korean was universally characterized by the experience of confusion, but it acted as an opportunity to establish a new subjectivity. The article also looked at the argument that educational system, like language, can dominate and liberate individuals’ perceptions. It was textbooks that have created discriminatory language throughout history. Japan implemented the authorized textbook system constructed before the war even after the war as a means to cast national consciousness. One example was the justification of the wars and the single-state historical view. Nevertheless, the Gyegan Samcheolli, critically approaching this pre-war historical view that persisted after the war, suggested a new logic for historical perceptions for history textbooks that was found in the case of Hiroshima (広島); in other words, it proposed a way for Japan to put post-imperialism into action by recognizing its history as the “perpetrator” through the spelling of “Hiroshima” in katakana (ヒロシマ), rather than to remember the city as an atomic bomb affected area with its traditional spelling with Chinese characters.

Опыт государственного регулирования процесса развития языка

Ф, Х, Гарипова 고려대학교 러시아 CIS연구소 2012 Acta Russiana Vol.4 No.-

This article sheds light on the experience realization of the Bashkir language as the state one during the 20-30 years of the XXth century in BASSR, which was realized at the state level. The article presents information on the national staff of the Republic Bashkortostan in order to introduce the language condition of the people compactly living in the republic, including the condition of the state Bashkir language. The movements for national autonomy, launched in 1917, attracted the processes of the authorization of national languages. The language building was developed in the whole country. The war with illiteracy and rising educational and cultural level of the population were combined with the realization of the local national language. The program for broadening the use range of Bashkir language as the state one in Bashkir autonomic republic was carried out in parallel with the formation of literary language and the creation of new literature, reading and writing. It was necessary to carry out the following measures for the successful realization of the Bashkir languages as national one: involvement in raising Bashkirs as native speakers of Bashkir language; enhancement of their educational level; teaching of Bashkir language to specialists who do not know this language; organization of school education in Bashkir language; establishment of publication organization as an advertisement organization of Bashkir language; and standardization of the language. The formation of a literary language occurred against the background of argumentations between representatives of the two dialects regarding which language should be the first. As a result, reasonable decision was made to take specificities of both dialects for standard. Three alphabets on the base of three graphical systems were created in a short time. Choosing the writing form was dependent on political factors, rather than on linguistic ones.

러시아연방 다게스탄공화국의 언어 상황 연구

정경택 한국슬라브어학회 2020 슬라브어연구 Vol.25 No.2

Republic of Dagestan is the most diverse ethnic republic (subject) in the Russian Federation, with 30 to 40 languages. For the residents of Dagestan, Russian language is another state language and inter-ethnic communicative language. In the region, the number of Russians has been decreasing since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, but the number of Russian speakers has been steadily increasing. This study looked at the overall language situation of the Republic of Dagestan, where languages of republican level and Russian language are the most common. And the proportion of Russians is the lowest in the Russian Federation, and showed the status and usage of Russian language with the function of state language and inter-ethnic communicative language, and the efforts of the Russian central government to expand and preserve the use of Russian language. The population (105,800 people) and ratio (3.6%) of Russians in Dagestan are very low, but the Russian speakers and usage area are increasing. First, it is mandatory to educate Russian, the state language of the Federation, as a federal entity, a territorial administrative unit in the Russian Federation. Second, because it is essential in the communication between 190 ethnic groups as lingua franca of the Russian Federation. Third, the Republic of Dagestan has 14 state languages including Russian, Tat, Azeri, Kukh, Nogai, and Chechen, in addition to the eight languages specific to the Republic, but the number of users is divided and the prestige of Russian, the state language of the Russian Federation and languages of republican level. Fourth, through the revision of the Education Act of 2018, Russian is not only the state language of the Russian Federation, but also the status of the mother tongue and the education of the mother tongue chosen by parents and students. Fifth, because of passive national culture-language revival movement in Dagestan, it is known that Dagestan is in danger of extinction.

20세기 전기 중국 국어운동의 전개 -언어 통합의 과제를 둘러싼 離合-

김승욱(Kim, Seungwook) 호서사학회 2022 역사와 담론 Vol.- No.101

본고는 20세기 전기 국어운동의 전개 과정을 중심으로, 중국이 제국에서 국민국가로 이행해가는 과정에서 그 언어적 통합이 어떻게 추진되었는지 검토한 것이다. 중국이 국민국가로 전환되는 과정에 기존 제국 체제를 구성했던 많은 요소들이 잔존해서 새로운 체제와 결합했던 바, 이러한 측면은 언어 면에서도 확인해볼 수 있다. 서면 언어와 구두 언어가 위계적으로 분리된 양층언어(diglossia) 구조와 官話를 포함해 매우 다양한 방언이 병존했던 구두 언어의 분절 등은 제국체제 아래 유지되어온 중국 언어구조의 주요한 특성들이었다. 국어운동은 이러한 제국 체제하의 분절된 언어구조를 국민국가 체제하의 통합된 언어구조로 바꾸어가려는 노력이었다. 본고에서는 주로 국어연구회와 『신청년』 지식인들의 활동을 중심으로 20세기 전기 국어운동의 주요 성과들을 검토해 보았다. 당시 이들이 注音字母 공포, 『國音字典』의 간행, 국어 과목의 개설 등 언어 표준을 확정하고 그것을 보급, 교육하는 데 적지 않은 성과를 거두었던 것이 주목된다. 그렇지만 이들이 취했던 언어 통합의 방식은 제국 시기에 관료, 지식인 집단에 국한해 하향식으로 시행했던 讀音 통일 조치와 근본적으로 다른 것이었다고 보기 어려웠다. 그것만으로 제국의 언어 구조를 국민국가에 부합하는 언어 구조로 완전히 새롭게 전환하는 것은 한계가 있었다. 따라서 이후 이 시기 국어운동의 한계를 극복하기 위한 비판적 논의들이 이어질 수밖에 없었다. 후속 논의들은 언어 통합의 지향과 방법론을 더 구체적으로 만들었으며, 동시에 중국 언어구조의 현실과 문제에 대해 더 깊이 검토하도록 했다고 할 수 있다. 이 과정에서 제국체제하에서 언어적 통합성을 유지하는 데 기여해 왔으며 또한 그 현실적 기능을 무시하기 어려운 많은 요소들이, 관성을 유지하면서 새로운 국가 체제 속에서 공존하는 결과로 이어졌던 것은 아닌가 생각한다. 이 시기 국어운동은 이와 같이 오늘날로 이어지는 중국의 언어통합의 과정을 본격적으로 시동했던 단계로서 중요한 의미를 갖는다. This paper examined how the linguistic integration was promoted in the process of China"s transition from an empire to a nation-state, focusing on the National Language Movement(國語運動) in the early 20th century. In the process of China"s transition to a nation-state, many of the elements that formed the existing imperial system remained and combined with the new system, which can be confirmed in terms of language. The structure of a diglossia in which written language and oral language were hierarchically separated, and regional division of various dialects, including Mandarin Chinese (官話, speech of officials), were major characteristics of the Chinese language structure maintained under the imperial system. The National Language Movement was an effort to change the segmented language structure under this imperial system with an integrated language structure under the nation-state system. In this paper, the main achievements of the National Language Movement in the early 20th century were reviewed, focusing mainly on the activities of the Association for Research on National Language(國語硏究會) and La Jeunesse(新靑年) intellectuals. It is noteworthy that at that time, considerable results were achieved in determining language standards, disseminating and educating them. However it was difficult to say that the method of language integration they took was fundamentally different from the top-down pronunciation unification measures implemented only for bureaucratic and intellectual groups during the Empire. Therefore, it did not completely change the language structure of the imperial system to a new language structure consistent with the nation-state system. Critical discussions to overcome the limitations of the National Language Movement during this period were bound to continue. Such follow-up discussions made the orientation and methodology of language integration more specific, and at the same time led to a deeper review of the reality and problems of the Chinese language structure. As a result, various factors that contributed to maintaining linguistic integration under the imperial system were difficult to ignore, so they coexisted in a new state system while maintaining inertia. The National Language Movement of this period is of great significance in that it created a stage where China began the process of promoting language integration in earnest.

민족국가와 언어의 정치: 프랑스와 프랑스어의 관계에 대한 역사적 고찰

조홍식 서울대학교 국제학연구소 2008 국제지역연구 Vol.17 No.3

In the triangular relationship of nation-state-language, France is characterized by a kind of paradox. Unlike the German understanding of nation defined in ethnocultural terms of blood, tradition, customs, and language, the French definition of nation is far more subjective and political. Nevertheless, France has been practicing one of the strongest national language policies. This article analyzes the formation of a nation-state along with the accompanying politics of language by combining the triple problems of ‘the invention of tradition,' ‘the formation of modern citizenship,' and ‘linguistic domination.' The main argument is that, because France had to confront a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural diversity, the language policy emerged as a central instrument to produce a centralized nation for the early-established. The dense connections between the formation of French national identity and the politics of the language can only be observed from a long-term historical perspective. This explains the French attempts to compensate the loss of political power by cultural ties in her policy of Francophonie in the second-half of the 20th century. More recently, the French language policy has reflected an excessive zeal to protect the ‘purity' of the language in facing the challenges of the American-led globalization and of the English-dominated Europeanization. The sociocultural problems of immigration and the revival movement of regional languages have also provoked a chauvinistic tendency. 이 연구의 출발점은 민족-국가-언어의 관계에서 프랑스가 보여주고 있는 일종의 패러독스이다. 독일과 같이 혈통, 전통, 관습, 언어 등을 강조하는 종족·문화적 민족의 정의를 가진 나라가 아니고 왜 가장 주관적이고 정치적인 민족 구성을 주장하는 프랑스가 가장 강력한 단일 언어 정책과 동화 정책을 폈는가가 패러독스의 핵심 질문이다. 이 논문은 프랑스 민족의 근대적 형성과 이를 동반하는 언어의 정치를 ‘전통의 발명’과 ‘근대 국민의 형성’, 그리고 ‘언어를 통한 지배’라는 문제의식을 통해 분석하고자 한다. 이 연구의 가장 핵심적인 주장은 프랑스의 경우 독일처럼 문화적 민족이 선험적으로 존재하지 않는 다종족·다문화적 상황에서, 먼저 형성된 단일 국가에게 있어 동질적인 민족을 만들어내는 중요한 수단이 바로 언어였다는 점을 강조한다. 그와 동시에 장기 역사적인 차원에서 진행되는 민족 정체성의 형성과 변화에 언어의 정치가 밀접한 상호 관계를 나타낸다는 사실을 보여주는 것이다. 특히 20세기 중반 이후에는 제국의 붕괴에 따른 정치력의 상실을 문화적 영향력을 통해 보상하려는 프랑스어권 정책이 등장하는 한편, 미국이 지배하는 세계화와 영어가 강한 위상을 차지하는 유럽화로부터 프랑스어의 순수성을 보호하려는 과잉 반응의 정책을 나타낸다. 이는 이민과 지방언어의 부활 운동과 같은 내부적 반발에 직면하면서 더욱 국수주의적 성향을 보여주고 있다.

명사 체계를 통해서 본 베르베르어의 형태론적 체계와 변이형에 관한 연구

임기대(Lim, Gi-Dae) 한국아프리카학회 2017 한국아프리카학회지 Vol.52 No.-

베르베르어는 전통적으로 구두어의 맥락에서 파악된 언어이다. 하지만 20세기 들어 이 언어의 문법 체계는 물론 사용법 관련하여 체계적인 문법 연구가 실행되었다. 그럼에도 불구하고 워낙 방대한 지역에서 구어로 사용됐던 베르베르어에 대한 연구를 체계적으로 다듬는 일은 여전히 어려워 보인다. 본고에서는 이런 점을 감안하면서, 베르베르어의 명사 체계를 통해 형태론적 변화가 어떻게 이루어지는지를 살펴보고자 했다. 이를 위해 베르베르어의 명사 체계가 상태 명사를 중심으로 형성되었음을 인정하는 선행 연구에서 출발하였다. 다음으로 베르베르어의 모든 방언이 과연 ‘병합상태’ 명사 형태를 얼마나 유지하고 있는지를 살펴보고자 했다. 수십 개의 베르베르 방언에는 일반적인 병합상태 명사가 존재하지 않는 여타 방언의 사례가 있음을 들어 베르베르 방언의 특수성을 다양하게 보여주고자 한다. 이는 베르베르어가 동질적인 언어군이지만 동시에 이질적인 변이형이 있음을 보이고자 함이다. 이를 위해 우리는 베르베르어의 공통된 특성으로 나타나는 병합상태 명사를 간략하게 설명하고, 그것의 변이형이 어떻게 나타나는지를 테트세레트어의 경우를 들어 살펴보았다. 이 언어는 니제르에서 단 두 종족이 구어로만 유지해 온 언어이다. 타마체크어라는 지배어와의 경쟁에서 여전히 생존하고 있는 특별한 이 언어는 여러 특이한 현상들을 보이고 있으며, 모리타니아의 제나가어와 지리적으로 유사성이 없으면서도 공통의 특성을 상당 부분 공유하고 있다. 전체적으로 베르베르어의 성·수 체계에서 형태론적 변화와 그것의 변이형을 테트세레트어(tetserret)의 경우를 통해 살펴보면서, 베르베르어의 문자 체계에서 비롯된 방언이 지역별로 다르듯이 형태론적 측면에서도 지역별로 다른 사실을 확인할 수 있었다. 흔히 말하는 베르베르어는 통일성을 기하는 문법 체계가 존재하지만 예외적인 상황이 많이 발생하는 언어이다. 이런 점을 감안하여 본 연구는 비슷한 양상을 보이는 소유사, 대명사, 형용사 체계와 같은 후속 연구는 물론 차용어나 고유의 문화 속에 내재되어 있는 단어들을 연구하는 데 참고할 수 있을 것으로 기대된다. The Berber languages are essentially the oral languages. Moreover, these languages are scattered in various regions. Even the forms of the name appear differently, and the "name of the state" in particular, shows us the complexity of the Berber language. Noticing these characteristics, we tried to examine the morphological system of the Berber language. For this, we started with previous studies that the nominal system of the Berber language consists of the name of the state. Then we wanted to see the diversity of the nominal system concerning the state of annexation, since there are Berber dialects that do not take it. This is to show the specificity of the Berber language. It means that the berber language is a homogeneous language group, but at that same time has a heterogeneous variant. In this research, we also examined the case of Tetsseret in order to show the variant of the Berber language. Tetserret is one of the last undescribed languages and is spoken in Niger by only two ethnic groups. He has survived until now, despite the domination of Tamacheq. This language is spoken in a region it shares with Tamacheq, and has long been considered a dialect of Tamacheq, yet it has many original features that clearly distinguish it from Tamacheq. Surprisingly, some of these features are shared with other languages, including Zenaga, spoken in Mauritania, and therefore geographically quite far apart. The Tetsseret, one of the Berber variants, does not take the form of the nominal system like the other Berbers. This will help us look for consecutive studies that show the same phase as adjectives and possessive as well as many French and Arabic borrowings as well.

국어의 재건과 문학자의 임무

송기섭(Ki-seob Song) 어문연구학회 2007 어문연구 Vol.55 No.-

There was strong effort to recover Korean language and Korean letters by the time Korea liberated. Liberation from the enforcement of using Japanese language, Hangeul got a chance to escape from Japanese language. Hangeul had a time to recovering its own communication. But the illiterate people were the biggest problem. Solving this problem was important mission for Korean. The literary men had responsibility to recovering the national language. A crusade against illiteracy and purification of the national language needed literary men"s participation themselves. A process of reconstruction of the national language, the national language ideology occurred. The literary men believed that reconstruction of Korean is Korean"s duty which given to them. Thought about language nationalism was mentality basis of the national language reconstructing. The literary men were deeply related to reconstruction of the national language and creating literature, so it was important that they introspect themselves. Hangeul have ability about the Korean"s communication, but also important medium of forming modern nation-state. Literary men"s national language reconstructing was related to construction of nation. Each of the leftists and rightists announced national literature related to construction of country. To construction of national literature, erasing Japanophilism is essential. Purification of the national language is good example about erasing Japanophilism. Purification of the national language was the purpose of literary men. The left and right of a literary society had same object(construct national state with a unitary language), but they have not been reconciled.

Teacher and Student Perceptions of New English Language Education Policy

Hyun-Ju Kim 한국중앙영어영문학회 2009 영어영문학연구 Vol.51 No.3

Recently national Language Education Policy (LEP) in Korea has been introduced in an innovatively changed working condition. The new government in Korea has introduced the new language education policy of ‘Teaching English in English (TEE)’ for every student from elementary to university levels. This innovative policy has been introduced after the announcement of new state-wide English proficiency test, which is being developed by the Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation (KICE). This introduction of a new language test is leading to the implementation of new language education policy and will undoubtedly impact language teaching and practice in public and private schools. Since the new English proficiency test includes speaking and writing sections and the results of the test will serve as an important gate-keeping tool in college entrance processes in Korea, it is expected that the new test will influence the teaching and learning of the English language in general. This paper discusses these issues with empirical data from Korean secondary English teachers and students and suggests that the preparation of policy makers should include both scholarly opinions and practical perspectives from actual language users in Korean society.

토픽모델링을 활용한 재미한글학교에 대한 학교장의 인식 탐색

김한나,이재덕,이영신 한국홀리스틱융합교육학회 2024 홀리스틱융합교육연구 Vol.28 No.1

This research aims to extract key keywords perceived by school principals in the context of Korean Language Schools in the United States. Schools and analyze the topic modeling of their perceptions. After reviewing previous studies related to the perceptions of Korean language schools and their constituents, interviews were conducted with principals currently in service of Korean Language Schools in the United States. After data cleaning, keyword frequency analysis, word cloud visualization, centrality analysis, and topic modeling analysis were conducted. The research results showed that the key perception keywords of school principals regarding Korean Language Schools in the United States ranked highest as students, teachers, Korean language, school, and Korea. According to centrality analysis, keywords like students, teachers, Korean language, and school exhibited numerous connection relationships, short connection distances, many connections with important nodes, and acted as mediators. Finally, the topics were named as Topic1 to Topic4, including interpersonal relationships, mutual cooperation, school management, teaching and learning, and curriculum. Keywords for each group were extracted, and topic modeling was conducted. The analysis revealed that Topic1, Topic5, Topic2, and Topic3 groups were connected, centered around keywords such as foreign, textbooks, and teacher recruitment, while Topic4 group appeared separately without connections to other groups. Based on the results, it is expected that these findings can be used as a resource to understand the actual state of Korean Language Schools in the United States and contribute to their development in the future. 이 연구는 학교장이 인식하는 재미한글학교에 대한 핵심키워드를 도출하고, 학교장 인식의 토픽모델링이 어떠한지 분석하는 데 목적이 있다. 한글학교와 학교구성원의 인식과 관련된 선행연구 검토 후, 재미한글학교에 대한 학교장의 인식 분석을 위해 재직 중인 3명의 학교장을 대상으로 면담을 실시하였다. 데이터 클리닝을 거쳐 키워드 빈도분석, 워드클라우드 시각화, 중심성 분석, 토픽모델링 분석을 실시하였다. 연구 결과, 재미한글학교에 대한 학교장의 인식 키워드는 학생, 교사, 한국어, 학교, 한국의 순으로 높게 나타났고, 주말학교, 교회의 키워드도 도출되었다. 중심성 분석 결과, 학생, 교사, 한국어, 학교의 키워드가 많은 연결 관계, 짧은 연결 거리, 중요한 노드와의 많은 연결, 매개역할을 하는 것으로 나타났다. 토픽모델링 분석은 Topic을 다섯 개로 설정하여 각 그룹의 키워드를 도출하였으며, 각각 토픽명을 인적연대, 상호협력, 학교경영, 교수학습, 교육과정으로 명명하였다. 이와 같은 재미한글학교에 대한 학교장의 인식분석을 통해 도출된 결과를 바탕으로 향후 재미한글학교의 실질적인 모습을 파악하고, 재미한글학교의 발전을 위한 자료로 활용하기를 기대한다.