Chinese Financing and Domestic Politics in Sri Lanka- Parallel Evolution across Mid- 20th vs 21st Century Episodes of Bilateral Interactions

Umesh Moramudali,Thilina Panduwawala 경남대학교 극동문제연구소 2024 ASIAN PERSPECTIVE Vol.48 No.3

This article studies the parallel evolution of Sri Lanka’s domestic politics and China’s foreign financing in Sri Lanka’s post-independence era through four lenses, namely, political opposition, political gains, economic structure, and institutions. We focus on the bilateral relationship prior to Sri Lanka’s economic liberalization and the aftermath of the middle-income transition and add three major findings to the literature. Firstly, Chinese economic engagements continue to have substantial political opposition in Sri Lanka. But the nature of such opposition evolved from ideology- based to sovereignty-based anti-China sentiments, which heavily correlate with elections. Economic relations with China have continued to evolve as political gains, which helped maintain government popularity in the short-to-medium term and exceeded the costs inflicted by political opposition. Secondly, the nature of the bilateral economic relationship has become more complex, moving from being purely government- to-government to involving multiple actors: Chinese policy banks, state-owned enterprises (SOEs), and the private sector. Thirdly, despite differences, Sri Lanka’s governments have utilized economic relations with China for short-term political gains and to avoid structural reforms, especially in the run-up to Sri Lanka’s sovereign default and unprecedented economic crisis in 2022. We conclude that China’s approach to ongoing debt restructuring will affect domestic politics around China’s engagements and affect how the bilateral economic relationship evolves. This article studies the parallel evolution of Sri Lanka’s domestic politics and China’s foreign financing in Sri Lanka’s post-independence era through four lenses, namely, political opposition, political gains, economic structure, and institutions. We focus on the bilateral relationship prior to Sri Lanka’s economic liberalization and the aftermath of the middle-income transition and add three major findings to the literature. Firstly, Chinese economic engagements continue to have substantial political opposition in Sri Lanka. But the nature of such opposition evolved from ideology- based to sovereignty-based anti-China sentiments, which heavily correlate with elections. Economic relations with China have continued to evolve as political gains, which helped maintain government popularity in the short-to-medium term and exceeded the costs inflicted by political opposition. Secondly, the nature of the bilateral economic relationship has become more complex, moving from being purely government- to-government to involving multiple actors: Chinese policy banks, state-owned enterprises (SOEs), and the private sector. Thirdly, despite differences, Sri Lanka’s governments have utilized economic relations with China for short-term political gains and to avoid structural reforms, especially in the run-up to Sri Lanka’s sovereign default and unprecedented economic crisis in 2022. We conclude that China’s approach to ongoing debt restructuring will affect domestic politics around China’s engagements and affect how the bilateral economic relationship evolves.

Incidence of Bladder Cancer in Sri Lanka: Analysis of the Cancer Registry Data and Review of the Incidence of Bladder Cancer in the South Asian Population

Weranja K. B. Ranasinghe,Daswin De Silva,M.V.C. De Silva,Tamra I J Ranasinghe,Nathan Lawrentschuk,Damien Bolton,Raj Persad 대한비뇨의학회 2012 Investigative and Clinical Urology Vol.53 No.5

Purpose: To investigate the incidence of bladder cancer (BC) in Sri Lanka and to compare risk factors and outcomes with those of other South Asian nations and South Asian migrants to the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (US). Materials and Methods: The incidence of BC in Sri Lanka was examined by using two separate cancer registry databases over a 5-year period. Smoking rates were compiled by using a population-based survey from 2001 to 2009 and the relative risk was calculated by using published data. Results: A total of 637 new cases of BC were diagnosed over the 5-year period. Sri Lankan BC incidence increased from 1985 but remained low (1.36 and 0.3 per 100,000 in males and females) and was similar to the incidence in other South Asian countries. The incidence was lower, however, than in migrant populations in the US and the UK. In densely populated districts of Sri Lanka, these rates almost doubled. Urothelial carcinoma accounted for 72%. The prevalence of male smokers in Sri Lanka was 39%, whereas Pakistan had higher smoking rates with a 6-fold increase in BC. Conclusions: Sri Lankan BC incidence was low, similar to other South Asian countries (apart from Pakistan), but the actual incidence is likely higher than the cancer registry rates. Smoking is likely to be the main risk factor for BC. Possible under-reporting in rural areas could account for the low rates of BC in Sri Lanka. Any genetic or environmental protective effects of BC in South Asians seem to be lost on migration to the UK or the US and with higher levels of smoking, as seen in Pakistan. Purpose: To investigate the incidence of bladder cancer (BC) in Sri Lanka and to compare risk factors and outcomes with those of other South Asian nations and South Asian migrants to the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (US). Materials and Methods: The incidence of BC in Sri Lanka was examined by using two separate cancer registry databases over a 5-year period. Smoking rates were compiled by using a population-based survey from 2001 to 2009 and the relative risk was calculated by using published data. Results: A total of 637 new cases of BC were diagnosed over the 5-year period. Sri Lankan BC incidence increased from 1985 but remained low (1.36 and 0.3 per 100,000 in males and females) and was similar to the incidence in other South Asian countries. The incidence was lower, however, than in migrant populations in the US and the UK. In densely populated districts of Sri Lanka, these rates almost doubled. Urothelial carcinoma accounted for 72%. The prevalence of male smokers in Sri Lanka was 39%, whereas Pakistan had higher smoking rates with a 6-fold increase in BC. Conclusions: Sri Lankan BC incidence was low, similar to other South Asian countries (apart from Pakistan), but the actual incidence is likely higher than the cancer registry rates. Smoking is likely to be the main risk factor for BC. Possible under-reporting in rural areas could account for the low rates of BC in Sri Lanka. Any genetic or environmental protective effects of BC in South Asians seem to be lost on migration to the UK or the US and with higher levels of smoking, as seen in Pakistan.

스리랑카의 對 인도 및 중국 정책변화 연구

유경완(Yoo, Kyeong-Wan) 한국외국어대학교 인도연구소 2016 남아시아연구 Vol.22 No.2

지난 2009년 27년간 이어져온 스리랑카의 긴 내전이 종식되었다. 아시아 최장기 내전으로 기록된 이 전쟁 동안 10만 명 이상이 숨졌으며 실종 14만 명, 난민 수는 160만 명에 달한다. 스리랑카의 내전기간 동안 최대 무기 공급처는 중국이었다. 스리랑카는 중국과 1991년 1억 달러의 무기 공급 계약을 체결한 후부터 2013년까지 약 20년간 소총, 탄약, 탱크, 전투기 등 20억 달러의 군사용 무기를 공급받았다. 또한 중국은 스리랑카 군대의 훈련, 정보수집교육, 해상기지 현대화 등에 자금을 투입하는 등 콜롬보 정부에 대한 군사지원을 제공했다. 스리랑카가 오랜 동안 내전을 겪으며 치안과 질서 유지에 집중하고 있을 때 중국은 무기를 제공함으로써 손쉽게 인도 견제를 위한 진주목걸이 전략을 착실히 진행할 수 있었던 것이다. 내전이 종식되기 직전해인 2008년에만 스리랑카가 중국으로부터 제공받은 무기는 7,500만 달러에 달한다. 2009년 내전이 종료된 후 2014년까지 중국의 대 스리랑카 원조액은 46.7억 달러에 달한다. 이는 인접국 인도의 원조액인 15억 달러를 3배를 넘기는 액수이다. 라자팍사가 정권을 가진 2004년부터 11년 동안 인도와 스리랑카의 무역액이 연평균 16% 늘어난 것에 비해 중국과의 무역액은 연평균 34.5%나 증가했다. 중국이 이렇게 스리랑카에 집중하는 이유는 자국의 진주목걸이 전략의 핵심국가이기 때문이다. 이 전략은 인도를 에워싸는 이웃국가들의 항구개발과 인프라구축을 원조하며 인도를 견제하고자 하는 목적으로 2013년 시진핑주석의 ‘일대일로’ 정책으로 구체화된다. 스리랑카의 라자팍사 대통령(2005-2014)은 친중외교정책을 바탕으로 중국으로부터 막대한 금액의 투자유치에 성공하였다. 이에 중국의 경쟁국이자 스리랑카와 오랜 유대관계를 가진 인도는 뒤늦게 친 스리랑카 정책을 펼치고 있다. 2014년 총리에 오른 모디는 전 라지브 간디 총리의 암살로 오랫동안 냉각된 국교를 정상화 하고자 인도 정상으로서는 28년 만인 2015년 스리랑카에 방문했다. 그는 실용주의 외교를 내걸고 양국 간 통화스와프협정, 안보협력, 농업협력, 민간원자력개발협력 등 4개 분야에 지원할 것을 합의하였다. 2015년은 인도와 중국의 대 스리랑카 외교에 중요한 분수령이었다. 친중 정책을 펼친 라자팍사 대통령이 3선에 실패하고 친인도 성향의 시리세나가 대통령으로 선출되었기 때문이다. 친인도·친모디 성향인 시리세나는 취임 후 불과 한 달 만인 2015년 2월 인도에 방문, 모디총리를 만나 지난 정권의 친중 노선을 재검토하겠다고 밝혔다. 곧바로 중국이 14억 달러를 투자하기로 한 초대형 프로젝트인 콜롬보미래항구도시 개발사업에 제동이 걸렸다. 그러나 친인도 성향일 것이라 예상됐던 시리세나 정부는 2016년도 들어서 실용주의에 입각한 두 강대국 사이의 줄타기외교정책을 펼치고 있다. 시리세나는 인도를 방문하며 각종 국익에 관련된 투자유치를 체결하면서 위크레메싱게 총리를 베이징으로 보내 콜롬보미래항구 프로젝트를 재개하며 시진핑을 달래주었다. 시리세나 대통령은 전임 라자팍사가 중국과 관계 강화에 주력했던 것과 차별화된 모습을 보이고 있는 것이다. 그는 불과 취임 15개월 만에 인도·중국과의 외교관계의 균형추를 맞추고 있고 두 강대국을 상대로 지정학적·지경학적 요소를 정치적 지렛대로 사용하며 국가의 안보 및 경제발전을 확보하고 있다. China has emerged as a superpower in the world and became one of the important factors in India-Sri Lanka relations. China’s footprints as a “String of Pearls” framework is one of the major players in the Sri Lanka in many fields. Between Beijing and Colombo has increased tremendously their trade and investment in the last 10 years. Sri Lanka is seen as “an important hub on the Maritime Silk Road” by China. The Chinese involvement in Sri Lanka ranges from infrastructure development, economic aid, oil exploration, investments, trade, and a strong diplomatic support to the island state when in need, especially closing the civil war. China invested the island state include Hambantota port, Expressway, Power plant Project, Airport, Colombo South Harbour Expansion Project and the National Art Center in Colombo. Statistically speaking, funding from China accounts for more than half of Sri Lanka’s construction and development loans. In value terms, it is estimated at over USD five billion-more. The main objective behind is to ensure the security of its sea lanes. After Rajapaksa regime, Maithripala Sirisena became the Sri Lankan President. He visited India in 2015, and has discussed forging closer ties with India during landmark talks with Prime Minister Narendra Modi. By visiting India he is making it clear that ties with Delhi are a priority. Prime Minister Modi described Sri Lanka as India"s "closest neighbour and friend" following the talks. The two leaders signed four agreements, including one on increasing trade as well as a landmark deal on civilian nuclear co-operation - the first that Sri Lanka has signed with any country. In these situation, Colombo government aims to balanced international relations so called the hedging strategy. While Sri Lanka under a new government may not entirely disengage China given its surging cash reliance on Beijing to build its infrastructure, New Delhi could look forward to a correction in Colombo’s strategic proximity to Beijing as well as an overall rebalancing of the island nation’s external relations. Bilateral ties under Sirisena will likely see more focus on the state of Sri Lanka"s economy.

Role of the Pacific-Japan Pattern in Shaping Sri Lanka Rainfall

박정현 한국기상학회 2025 Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences Vol.61 No.1

Recent studies have shown that the Pacific-Japan (PJ) pattern is the dominant climate mode and has a relationship with rainfall anomalies in East Asia. However, the influence of the PJ pattern on the rainfall of Sri Lanka remains largely unclear. Therefore, the present study examines the impact of the PJ pattern on the rainfall of Sri Lanka during the boreal summer utilizing observational and reanalysis datasets from 1981 to 2020. It is noted that the PJ pattern has a significant positive relationship with rainfall in Sri Lanka during the boreal summer. Furthermore, based on the composite analysis, we found that Sri Lanka experiences wet conditions during the positive phase of the PJ pattern in the summer, while the negative phase of the PJ pattern contributes to dry conditions. During the positive phase of the PJ pattern, moisture convergence over Sri Lanka is associated with the easterlies extending from the southern flank of Western North Pacific anomalous anticyclonic circulation, which results in enhanced convection and wet conditions over Sri Lanka. On the other hand, moisture divergence over Sri Lanka is linked with the westerlies extending from the southern flank of the Western North Pacific anomalous cyclonic circulation, decreasing the convection and dry conditions over Sri Lanka. This study suggests that the PJ pattern is a significant climate mode for understanding the rainfall pattern in Sri Lanka.

The Development of Sino-Sri Lankan Humanities Exchange from the Perspective of Community of Shared Future for Mankind: Present Situation, Challenges and Thinking

Liu Ting 아시아사회과학학회 2022 Jornal of Asia Social Science Vol.6 No.3

This year marks the 65th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Sri Lanka and the 70th anniversary of the signing of the Mijiao Agreement. Under the framework of jointly building the the belt and road initiative , the friendly and pragmatic cooperation between China and Sri Lanka in various fields of humanities has been continuously promoted, which has consolidated the foundation of friendship and public opinion between the two countries and promoted the common development of the two countries. However, there are also great challenges in the cooperation between China and Sri Lanka. Starting from the historical basis and development status of Sino-Sri Lanka cultural exchanges and cooperation, this paper points out the existing problems in Sino-Sri Lanka cultural cooperation and makes corresponding reflections, so as to provide reference for promoting the cultural exchanges between the two countries from the perspective of Community of Shared Future for Mankind.

사회 갈등과 불교의 역할-스리랑카를 중심으로-

야나로카 ( Athaudakande Gnanaloka ) 인도철학회 2015 印度哲學 Vol.0 No.45

스리랑카는 1983년부터 2009년까지 26년간의 타밀 분리 독립 운동으로 시작된 내전을 경험하였다. 스리랑카 내전에 대해서 국내에서는 불교-힌두교의 갈등으로 인해 발생한 문제로 인식되어 있으며, 본고는 스리랑카 내전이 단순히 불교-힌두교의 갈등으로 비롯된 것으로 해석하는 것보다 스리랑카 내전 역사를 통해 이 문제를 다른 관점에서 보는 것과 내전이 종료 된지 6년이 지난 현재 시점에서 스리랑카 불교 및 승가에게 주어진 역할이 무엇인지를 논의하고 있다.종교 간의 갈등 및 갈등 해소에 대해서 붓다의 가르침을 파알리 텍스트를 인용해 설명하고 있으며, 사회 갈등의 원인 및 해소에 대해 붓다가 어떤 방식으로 설하고 있는지를 파알리 텍스트에서 확인되는 희론(papanca), 잠재번뇌(anusaya) 및 견해(ditthi)와 같은 용어의 의미를 통해 살펴보고 있다. 또한 그 내용을 사회갈등 해소에 있어서 불교 입장을 표명하는데 도입시켜 설명하고 있다. 싱할라족과 타밀 민족 간의 갈등은 스리랑카 역사 내내 발생한 일이며, 본고에서 이러한 갈등의 원인이 스리랑카 불교 교단과 승가와 어떤 관계가 있는지를 검토한다. 스리랑카 불교 교단 및 승가가 예부터 항상 왕권과 밀접한 관계를 맺고 발전되어 온 것이 싱할라 민족과 마찬가지로 스리랑카에서 긴 역사를 가진 타밀 민족과의 갈등의 원인으로 제시할 수 있을 뿐만 아니라 현재 스리랑카 승가의 적극적인 정치 참여의 원인이 되기도 하다. 본고에서 마지막으로 스리랑카 내전 이후 현재 스리랑카 사회 및 승가에게 주어진 역할이 무엇인지를 간략하게 제시하고 있다. The aim of the present paper is to investigate the origin of Sri Lankan civil war from a different standpoint which ended in 2009 between Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and Sri Lankan government. Origin of this civil war in Sri Lanka has been recognized in Korea as a conflict between Buddhists and Hindus. However Sri Lankan civil war was not originated as a conflict between these two religions. This paper is trying to discuss the origin of this civil war by going through in history of Sri Lanka and solve gross misunderstanding in Korean society which breed by some scholars. Besides this after civil war had been ended, this research is attempt to discuss the role of society and Buddhist monks in Sri Lanka. Moreover this paper discusses what are the explanations of Buddhism Regarding conflicts and dissolution of conflicts by going through Pali texts and analyzation of words such as diffuseness(papanca), latent passion(anusaya) and speculative opinion(ditthi).Conflict between Sinhalese and Tamils has shown throughout Sri Lankan history. This paper is trying to discover the origin of this conflict and Buddhism. As discovered, Sri Lankan Buddhist monks and their orders have been connected closely to the line of Sinhalese kings throughout history of Sri Lanka. This should be one of the origins of conflict between Sinhalese and Tamils. Also the origin of active political participation of Buddhist monks at present in Sri Lanka. Lastly this paper is discussing from the present point the role of Sri Lankan Buddhist monks after the civil war.

Social Policy Legacies and the Contemporary Development Trajectory of Sri Lanka

Ananda Karunarathna,Edo Andriesse 한국외국어대학교 인도연구소 2018 남아시아연구 Vol.24 No.1

Sri Lanka is one of the lower-middle income countries in the South Asian region, yet it has simultaneously experienced ‘High Human Development’. This is all the more remarkable given the 1983-2009 civil war. This paper has two objectives. First, it reviews the reasons for Sri Lanka’s considerable human development achievements while still being a low middle income country by synthesizing the existing body of literature on Sri Lanka’s socioeconomic development. Second, it provides an assessment of contemporary human developments. How has Sri Lanka fared in the last two decades? We pay special attention to the country’s health and education policies. Based on a review of secondary sources we conclude that since the end of the civil war, Sri Lanka has experienced a substantial peace dividend. The task for Sri Lanka is to build on this peace dividend, to provide employment in the northern and eastern areas as well as to foster inclusive development throughout the country. The fact that Sri Lanka is classified as a high-human development should be no reason for complacency, given the remaining socio-economic and socio-spatial challenges. Promising industries are medical tourism, maritime logistics and agri-business.

Strengthening Public-Private Partnership in Sri Lanka’s Infrastructure Development Project : The Colombo Port Case

Taekyoon Kim Institute for International Trade and Cooperation, 2019 Asian International Studies Review Vol.20 No.1

Infrastructure has been a key component to Sri Lanka’s economic and social development especially through Public-Private Partnerships (PPP), but Sri Lanka is currently at a crossroads in term of fostering its PPP framework for infrastructure. This study sets out to examine and delineate the current landscape as well as the future prospects of Sri Lanka’s PPP with the particular reference to the Colombo Port Expansion projects implemented since 1999 as a proxy for Sri Lanka’s outlook of infrastructure PPP. It further contends that a given rule-of-thumb on PPP projects is not feasible in developing countries given their economic and political volatility, but positive changes in government strategies and policies can be suggested for better practices and effectiveness in Sri Lanka’s infrastructure PPP. Rather than simply suggesting a positive-descriptive overview of the Colombo Port case, this study advances the proper management of the PPP unit as a critical juncture for strengthening the future landscape of Sri Lanka’s PPP initiatives.

The Current Status and Breeding Perspective of Major Vegetable Crops in Sri Lanka

M.J.M.P. Kumararathna,M.A.P.W.K. Malaviarachchci,W.M.W. Weerakoon,Won Byoung Chae,Myeong Cheoul Cho,A.M. Perera,Min-Kyeong Kim,Eun Young Yang 한국국제농업개발학회 2020 韓國國際農業開發學會誌 Vol.32 No.1

스리랑카는 채소의 주년 생산에 적합한 기후를 갖고 있는 열대국가이다. 열대, 아열대 채소의 재배면적은 전체 농지(105,062 ha)의 약 3%이다. 지난 50년 동안 스리랑카에서 채소 육종에 관한 체계적인 연구가 이루어졌고 채소 부문은 지속적으로 증가하였다. 하지만 채소 육종, 재배 및 가공과 관련된 기술이 선진국에 비해 많이 뒤떨어져 있는 형편이다. 전통 육종법을 통해 개발된 다양한 농업적 형질을 가진 품종이 현재까지 스리랑카의 채소 생산에 이용되고 있지만 생명공학적 방법을 접목한 채소 품종 육종법의 중요성이 점차로 부각되고 있다. 본 논문은 스리랑카에서 중요한 채소 작물인 토마토, 고추류, 콩류, 가지 및 여주의 육종과 품종 현황을 소개하고 향후 스리랑카 육종 전망에 대해 논의하였다. Sri Lanka is a tropical country having a favourable climate for year around vegetable production. Many tropical and sub-tropical vegetables are grown in approximately 3% of total agriculture lands (105,062ha). In Sri Lanka, systematic studies on vegetable improvement have been conducted for 50 years and, since then, Sri Lanka has gradually increased its vegetable sector. However, Sri Lanka fall behind in technologies for vegetable breeding, cultivation and processing compared with developed countries. Cultivars with various agronomic characteristics developed through conventional breeding approach have been contributed to vegetable production in Sri Lanka. Since the crop improvement through conventional breeding has been realized at a slower phase, integrated approach with biotechnological tools became important for vegetable development. Here, we provided the current states of five major vegetables such as tomato, capsicum, beans, brinjal and bitter gourd and their leading cultivars. The outlook of breeding activities in Sri Lanka was also discussed.

The phylogenetic history of the old world butterfly subtribe Mycalesina extended: the Mycalesis (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) of Sri Lanka

Kshanika Goonesekera,Patricia L.M. Lee,George van der Poorten,Gaya R. Ranawaka 한국응용곤충학회 2019 Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology Vol.22 No.1

Sri Lanka, together with the Western Ghats, is one of the world's biodiversity hotspots, yet little is known about the genetic diversity of the butterflies here. Within the framework of the recently reconstructed molecular phylogeny for the subtribe Mycalesina, we determined the phylogenetic relationships and biogeographic history of the five species of Mycalesis butterflies that are found in Sri Lanka. Sequences of Elongation Factor 1-α (EF1-α), Wingless (Wgl) and the barcode region of the Cytochrome c Oxidase sub unit 1 (COI) were used to confirm the identity of species, to resolve taxonomic queries and to infer the phylogenetic history of the group. Time-calibrated analysis of genetic data suggests that the Mycalesis species that occur in Sri Lanka diverged in the Miocene (5–23 million years ago). The results of phylogenetic analyses confirmed the following; the endemicity of Mycalesis rama to Sri Lanka; the subspecies classification of M. perseus typhlus and, the close sister relationship of the Sri Lankan M. patnia patnia to M. p. junonia of India. However, whether or not M. subdita of Sri Lanka and India are genetically similar remains unknown. Lastly, genetic evidence emerged suggesting that M. mineus forms a cryptic species complex in the Oriental region, and that in Sri Lanka, there may be occasional hybridization between M. mineus and M. perseus. As a case study of island colonization and diversification by the Mycalesis species, this study further extends our understanding of the Old World butterfly subtribe of Mycalesina.