조선종두령(1923)의 시행과 식민지 조선의 두창 통제: 종두시술생 정책을 중심으로

김영수 의료역사연구회 2023 의료사회사연구 Vol.11 No.-

This paper examines changes made to the smallpox vaccination policy implemented by the Japanese Government-General of Korea to control the smallpox epidemic in colonial Korea, and analyzes the operation and effectiveness of the policy. To this end, I look into the background of the enactment of the smallpox vaccination regulation promulgated in 1923 and what the Japanese Government-General of Korea recognized as essential in revising the regulation. In 1923, the Japanese Government-General of Korea enacted a regulation called Joseon Jongduryeong to emphasize the necessity of smallpox vaccination and to actively implement vaccination by presenting scientific grounds. It was a revision of the existing regulation and based on the Japanese rule (Shutorei) enacted in 1909. The revision changed the period, subject, and number of doses for vaccination. It reflected the analysis of vaccination results and immunity conducted in Japan, and the geographical conditions of colonial Korea. In addition, due to the shortage of doctors and traditional medical practitioners, Vaccination Practitioners (Jongdusisulsaeng) played a significant role in implementing public smallpox vaccination. This inherited a part of the previous system (Jongduinheowon). Vaccination Practitioners were the main agents to implement temporary and special smallpox vaccinations, as well as regular ones. However, their vaccination techniques were difficult to trust because becoming a vaccination practitioner did not require any special skills, and they were trained only for a short time in learning to vaccinate for smallpox. As the smallpox epidemic re-emerged in the 1930s and 1940s, their role expanded inevitably. Therefore, it might be possible that management after smallpox vaccination was not strictly carried out. The Japanese Government-General of Korea was aware that vaccination practitioners were not ideal agents to implement smallpox vaccination, but had no choice but to use them amid a lack of medical personnel. However, it trusted the effectiveness of smallpox vaccines developed in Japan. Therefore, rather than focusing on securing a positive reaction (善感), it aimed to prevent the spread of the epidemic by vaccinating more people, more often. 본 논문은 식민지 조선의 두창 통제를 위해 일제가 실시한 종두정책의 변천을 살펴보고, 이 정책의 운용과 유효성을 분석하고자 하였다. 이를 위하여 1923년도에 반포된 「조선종두령」이 어떠한 배경에서 제정된 것이고, 법령 개정에서 문제로 인식하고 개선에 주안을 두었던 점이 무엇인지를 확인하고자 하였다. 그중에서도 기존의 종두인허원 제도를 일부 계승하지만, 새롭게 마련된 종두시술생 제도를 살펴보면서 조선총독부의 종두정책의 유효성과 한계를 확인하고자 하였다. 먼저 「조선종두령」의 내용은 일본의 「종두법」에 기초하여 접종 시기, 대상, 횟수 등을 변경한 것이 주요 골자였는데, 그 배경에는 1920년을 전후하여 두창이 유행했던 사실뿐만이 아니라, 그간 일본 내지에서 시행된 종두접종성적과 면역력에 대한 분석, 그리고 식민지 조선의 지리적 상황 등이 반영되었다는 점을 확인하였다. 그리고 종두를 접종할 수 있는 의사나 의생이 부족했기 때문에 기존의 종두인허원과 유사한 종두시술생 제도를 두어 그들에게 공종두(公種痘) 사업을 담당하여 두창을 통제하고자 하였다. 종두시술생은 정기종두를 비롯하여 임시 및 특별 종두를 실시해야 하는 주체로 상정되었는데, 기본적인 자격만 갖추면 될 수 있었고, 교육은 속성으로 진행되었기 때문에 접종기술에 대한 확신은 얻기 어려웠다. 그러나 1930년대 이후 두창 유행의 규모가 커지면서 속성 교육만을 받은 이들의 역할은 더욱 확대될 수밖에 없었는데, 그러다보니 종두 시행 후의 관리는 엄격하게 이루어지지 못한 것으로 보인다. 조선총독부도 그들을 활용하여 종두시술을 하는 것에 대한 불완전함은 인지하고 있었지만, 의료 인력이 부족한 가운데 이들을 활용할 수밖에 없었다. 다만 제조된 두묘의 효과는 신뢰하고 있었다. 따라서 선감을 확보하는 것에 주안점을 두기보다는 더 많은 사람에게 더 자주 접종하는 방식의 두창정책을 펼치면서 유행 확산을 저지하고자 하였다.

특별기고 : 마마배송굿

이두현 ( Du Hyun Lee ) 한국문화인류학회 2008 韓國文化人類學 Vol.41 No.2

이 논문은 역사적으로, 민족학적으로 천연두의 피해에 대해서 어떻게 대처하였는가를 고찰한 것이다. 천연두는 민족과 시대를 막론하고 무서운 병으로 인식되어서 각 시대, 문화마다 독특한 방제법을 고안해 냈다. 조선 시대에는 이 무서운 두창을 막기 위해서 관민(官民)이 여러 가지로 대책에 진력하였다. 관련 의약서도 다수 편찬되었다. 그리고 일단 병이 나면, 관에서는 격리법을 시행하여 전염이 되는 것을 막았고, 백성들은 두신제(痘神祭)를 행했다. 환자를 위한 손님굿 절차는 지방과 무격에 따라 각각 특색이 있어서 일정치가 않지만 12거리 중 호구거리와 별상거리에서 행해진다. 천연두 신에 대한 두려움은 갖가지 금기(禁忌)로 나타나기도 했다. 침술이나 복약 등 의술적 치료도 일절 금하며 `별상마마님`이라는 식의 최고 존칭으로 불렀다. 예방, 치료도 중요했지만, 천연두는 치료 후의 의례도 특이했다. 병을 앓고 난 뒤 13일째 되는 날 배송(拜送)굿을 해서 두신을 전송하기도 했다. 역신(疫神)에 대한 환대배송(歡待拜送)은 일본에서도 행해졌다. 일본도 천연두는 악신(惡神)의 소행으로 보고 악신을 내보내는 의례(儀禮)가 최근까지도 농촌지대에서는 빈번히 행해졌다. 이 무서운 천연두 신도 정중하게 대접하면 도리어 비호(庇護)를 주는 것으로 믿어져 왔다. 역신이 복신(福神)이 되는 것을 말하는데 이것은 천연두 신이 보여주는 특징적인 성격이다. 인도의 경우는 천연두를 지배하며 질병을 치유하는 신으로 시탈라(Sitala) 여신을 언급하고 있다. 시바 신을 섬기던 왕이 69명의 아이들과 모든 신하들이 천연두에 희생되자 시바 신이 도리어 시탈라 여신을 숭배할 것을 왕에게 권하여 마침내 구제되었다는 신화도 전한다. 세계적으로 두려움의 대상이었던 천연두가 마침내 지구상에서 근절되었음을 세계보건기구(WHO)가 1979년 선언하였다. The World Health Organization(WHO) announced that smallpox was finally exterminated from the earth in 1979. It had taken 181 years since Edward Jenner first invented the method of inoculation with cowpox vaccine. For a long time, smallpox was one of the most dreadful epidemics. It broke out first in India, and subsequently infiltrated China in AD 2~3. Afterward, it diffused into Korea in the mid-6th century, and then it diffused from southern Korea into Japan. Smallpox must have been prevalent in the Age of the Three Kingdoms in Korea and the during the subsequent Korea Dynasty. The disease was even more prevalent during the Chosun Dynasty. Common people in Korea thought that evil spirits in Southern China brought and disseminated smallpox. Because they considered smallpox as Goddess Hogu and God Pyulsang, rituals were carried out by shamans, known as the Twelve Rituals. People also gave an honorific name to smallpox, mama, which meant esteemed visitor or guest. During the rule of the Chosun Dynasty, the government and people made a variety of efforts to prevent smallpox, but with no effect results. Those efforts included publishing a medical book and curative rituals. Also, because the government of the Chosun Dynasty officially approved the effectiveness of medical rituals, as insignificant number of shamans were registered as medical practitioners by the government`s medical department and were encouraged to prevent smallpox. Eventually, at the end of the Chosun Dynasty(1876), Suk-Yung Chi introduced the vaccination method using a cow pox vaccine from Japan and was able to exterminate smallpox in Korea. Until then, common people in Korea used to perform the ritual of "Mama Baesong Kuts" to kindly entreat and send away the smallpox "gods." Smallpox gods were thought to become gods of wealth if well treated. In the case of Japan, while people attempted to use magic means instead of shamanic ritual in preventing smallpox, they also believed that the smallpox god would become a god of wealth if it was well treated. In West Bengal, India, the goddess of smallpox was named "Sitala." In the myth related to Sitala, she believed that she was revered by the divinities but complained, "No mortal ever worships me." For this reason, Sitala visited the king of Candraketu with sixty-four smallpox gods in order to ask him to worship Sitala. But as the king refused their suggestion, so the king`s subjects and princes were died of smallpox. Finally, when the lord Siva eventually asked the king to worship Sitala and the king accepted the request, his subjects and princes were revived. In a different Sitala myth, the goddess and sixty-four smallpox gods visited Munipur and contaminated the children of Rama worshipers with smallpox. As the children died of smallpox, their parents grieved despairingly. However, as "Dhanvantari," the god of medicine, helped them to worship Sitala, those children were revived and Munipur restored to its peace. These two myths of the goddess of smallpox commonly emphasize the worship of smallpox. Vishnu and Siva are also believed to worship Sitala. In India, indigenous medical treatment of pox is in charge of Malakar people, who are the caste related to garland making. Keeping images of one or more of these goddesses, Malakar people conduct smallpox vaccination and medically help infected people. They also regularly hold Malibag festival in the first of Chait. Yet, Malakar people are different from Shamans. In Mama Baesong Kuts of Korea, Shaman along with people kindly treat God and Goddess of smallpox. When they conduct a performance to send warmly Mama Gods and Goddesses on horse off their village, there is a moment of comic dialogue between road-horse man and Shaman. Similarly to conventional Korean Shamanism which include dramatic content in the process of several rituals, Mama Baesong Kuts shows the dramatization of Shamanistic rituals. The dramatization of Korean Shamanism is one of the unique characteristic in Northeast Asian Shamanism. In this context, Mama Baesong Kuts provide useful implications for discussions on the origin of Shamanism and theatrical performance.

<서신전송가(西神餞送歌)>에 나타난 두신(痘神) 전송(餞送) 의례와 그 의미

정인숙 ( In Sook Jeong ) 한국시가학회 2015 韓國 詩歌硏究 Vol.38 No.-

의학이 발달하기 이전 무속에서는 질병의 원인을 신과 관련하여 파악했고, 두역(痘疫)의 경우 두신(痘神)이 있다고 믿어 병을 앓고 나면 전송하는 의례를 행하였다. <서신전송가(西神餞送歌)>는 민간에서 행해지던 두신 전송 의례의 모습을 보여주는 국문가사이다. 영남지역에서는 두신을 ‘서신(西神)’이라 칭했고 두역을 앓고 나면 나무로 만든 말과 종이로 만든 깃발을 마련하여 여기에 물건을 실어 두신을 전송했다고 하는데 이 작품에는 그런정황이 잘 나타나 있다. 본고에서는 그동안 학계에 제대로 알려지지 않은 <서신전송가>를 대상으로 자료적 성격을 살펴보고 작품에 나타난 두신 전송 의례의 의미를 검토하였다. 아울러 조선후기에 두신 전송과 관련하여 지어진 작품들의 양상도 살펴보았다. <서신전송가>에 나타난 두신 전송 의례의 의미는 다음과 같다. 첫째, ‘두역순경(痘疫順經)’의 안도의 의례라는 점이다. 여타의 질병과는 달리 두역은 두신이 일정 기간 동안 환자의 몸을 ‘지나가는’ 것으로 여겼기에 두신을 지극한 정성으로 정중히 대했는데, 이 작품에는 두역이 순조롭게 지나간 것에 안도하는 마음이 잘 드러나 있다. 둘째, ‘완인(完人)’이되는 관문을 넘은 통과 의례라는 점이다. 두역을 잘 앓았다는 것은 단순히 건강을 다시찾았다는 의미뿐만 아니라 성장과정의 관문을 잘 넘어 비로소 온전한 사람으로 자랄 수 있게 되었다는 중요한 의미가 담겨 있다. 여기에는 아이가 관문을 잘 넘은 것에 기뻐하고 그렇게 될 수 있도록 도와준 두신에게 감사하는 뜻이 아울러 담겨 있다. 셋째, ‘백대영화(百代榮華)’와 ‘만수무강(萬壽無疆)’의 축원 의례라는 점이다. 두역을 앓은 후 건강을 되찾은 아이는 가문을 드높일 존재로 한껏 부각되는데, 관문을 무사히 넘은 아이가 큰 재목으로 성장하리라는 믿음과 또한 그렇게 되기를 간절히 바라는 소망을 엿볼 수 있다. 두신은 두역을 앓게도 하지만 수명과 복록도 가져다주는 존재로 여겨졌기에 백대영화와 만수무강의 소망은 곧 두신을 향한 것으로 볼 수 있다. <서신전송가>와 같이 두신 전송 의례와 관련된 작품을 살펴보면 조선후기에 다양한 글들이 지어졌음을 확인할 수 있다. 김매순의 <송두신문(送痘神文)>에서는 배송굿을 행하고 이어 글을 짓게 된 정황이 포착되는가 하면, 박윤묵의 <송두신시(送痘神詩)>에서는 두신을 전송하되 무당을 불러서는 안 된다는 인식이 나타나기도 한다. 윤행임의 <송두신서(送痘神序)>에는 <서신전송가>와 같이 두신 전송을 위해 말과 깃발을 만드는 과정이나와 있어 흥미롭고, 정조의 <송두신문>은 국왕이 친히 두신을 전송하는 글을 남겼다는 점뿐만 아니라 두신이 국왕의 권위를 확보해주고 위엄을 부여해주는 존재로 인식된다는 점에서 주목할 만하다. 이처럼 전통 사회에서 두역이 무섭고 두려운 병으로 인식되고 두신의 존재와 권능에 대한 믿음이 강했던 만큼 두신 전송 의례는 매우 중요했던 것으로 짐작되는바, 조선후기에 지어진 여러 글들은 이런 정황을 잘 보여준다고 하겠다. The aim of this paper is to examine the ritual of farewell to god of smallpox and meaning of in <Seosinjeonsong-ga>(西神餞送歌). In the case of smallpox people believe that there is a god of smallpox in korean traditional society. After a baby is cured of the disease, adults in his family perform a ceremony of farewell to god of smallpox. Shaman perform the ritual of farewell to god of smallpox in some cases. <Seosinjeonsong-ga> is a Gasa written in korean which include contents of the ritual of farewell to god of smallpox. The meaning of the ritual of farewell to god of smallpox in <Seo- sinjeonsong-ga> are as follows. The first, there is a meaning of the rite of relief that a baby was cured of the disease. The thought that smallpox was gone smoothly is well displayed in this text. The second, there is a meaning of the rite of passage for reaching manhood. People thank god of smallpox because they think he made a baby be cured. The third, there is a meaning of the rite of praying for wealth, honor and long life. People believe that god of smallpox give disease as well as long life and happiness to them. There are various works which include contents of the ritual of farewell to god of smallpox in chosun dynasty. People was afraid of smallpox and believed the power of the god of smallpox in korean traditional society, so the ritual of farewell to god of smallpox was very important. These works reflect on this situation.

조선 의관 허준의 두창 의학과 ‘변증(辨證)’

오재근(OH, Chaekun) 대한의사학회 2021 醫史學 Vol.30 No.1

In this research, I have tried to overview the diagnosis and treatment of smallpox performed by Heo Joon, a representative physician of Joseon (朝鮮) dynasty. In order to accomplish this, I analyzed the smallpox related contents shown in the Essentials of Smallpox translated in Korean (諺解痘瘡集要) and a comprehensive medical book Treasured Mirror of Eastern Medicine (東醫寶鑑), both written by Heo Joon. In examining these sources, I found out that Heo Joon used a medical method called ‘Syndrome differentiation (辨證)’ in treating smallpox. Next, I compared the medical cases of smallpox left behind by physicians before and after Heo Joon, so as to shed light on the meaning Heo Joon’s smallpox medicine has in the history of medicine. Heo Joon read the Compendium of Smallpox (瘡疹集) published by the Joseon government and medical books newly imported from Ming (明) China, in order to write the Essentials of Smallpox. His goal was to concentrate all the knowledge related to smallpox in just one book. One aspect that was considered was that this book’s target reader did not know anything about smallpox and could not read the Chinese letters. Heo Joon, to solve this problem, collected and organized the essentials of previous medical information and at the same time provided Korean translations. For Heo Joon, the main point of smallpox medicine was to discriminate the good or bad state of prognosis through the looks and colors of the smallpox, and to distinguish the lightness or heaviness of the symptoms through the concomitant symptoms. And such thoughts materialized into judging deficiency and excess, distinguishing concomitant symptoms, and discriminating similar symptoms. Not long after the Essentials of Smallpox was published, Treasured Mirror was published. As a comprehensive medical book that covered many diseases, Treasured Mirror had to have a coherent theoretical system on diagnosing diseases and treating them. What Heo Joon regarded as the most important content, namely discrimination and distinguishment of the looks and symptoms of smallpox, was included in Treasured Mirror in the name of ‘Syndrome differentiation (辨證)’. There are not any specific Heo Joon’s medical case left today, so we do not know how much his smallpox medicine contributed to uplifting the cure rate of smallpox in reality. However, comparing the case in the Compendium of Smallpox to case recorded by later physicians such as Park Jinhee (朴振禧), Ryu Sang (柳瑺), syndrome differentiation proposed by Heo Joon was not only succeeded by physicians of later generations but also contributed greatly to the success in treating smallpox. Heo Joon did not know about the pathology, causes of the smallpox, discovered by biomedicine. Even considering this, his medical contribution is clear. Based on the visible symptoms of smallpox and medical accomplishments of the previous eras, he organized and compactly proposed the causes, progression, distinguishing concomitant symptoms, treatments for symptoms development, etc. of the smallpox. In addition, in order to overcome the limit of simple symptomatic treatment, he entitled the chapter of medical thought of analysis symptoms ‘syndrome differentiation’ present in the previous medical books. It was the advent of Joseon’s edition of smallpox medicine based on syndrome differentiation.

조선 후기 송두신문(送痘神文)의 창작 양상

오보라 ( Oh Bo-ra ) 근역한문학회 2021 한문학논집(漢文學論集) Vol.59 No.-

본고는 조선 후기에 송두신문이 지속적으로 창작된 현상에 주목하여, 송두신문의 등장 배경과 내용, 송두신문의 창작이 갖는 의미에 대해 살펴보았다. 조선 시대에 두창이 유행하여 많은 인명을 앗아가자, 민간에서는 두창을 섬기는 풍습이 만연했다. 이로 인해 이전에는 시문의 주된 제재가 되지 못했던 ‘두창’이 본격적으로 시문의 전면에 등장했는데, 이현석의 「聖痘歌」가 그 시발점이 되었다. 숙종이 재위 중에 두창에 걸렸다가 낫자, 이현석은 「성두가」를 지어 두창을 ‘聖痘’로 신격화하고 두창의 공능을 칭송했다. 이현석의 「성두가」는 이후 송두신문 계열 작품의 창작에 직·간접적인 영향을 주었다. 조선 시대 유자들은 굿을 벌여 두신을 섬기는 풍속을 비판했지만, 두창에 대한 확실한 치료법이 없는 상황에서 두신의 존재를 마냥 부정할 수만도 없었다. 이러한 모순 속에서 나오게 된 문학적 양식이 송두신문이라고 할 수 있다. 조선의 유자들은 송두신문을 통해 두신의 존재와 두신의 영험함을 합리적으로 설명하고자 했다. 이들은 두신을 보는 관점에서는 차이를 보였으나, 공통적으로 두신의 존재와 공능을 인정하고 두신을 제대로 배송하는 방법은 무당굿이 아니라 시문을 지어 전송하는 것이라 주장했다. 즉 조선 시대 문인들은 두신의 존재는 인정하되 무당굿이 아닌 제문으로 전송함으로써, 두창에 대한 주술적 대응 방식을 활용하되 미신에 빠졌다는 비판은 면하려 했던 것이다. 송두신문은 두창이라는 공포의 질병을 마주한 문인들이 유가적 이상과 현실적인 대응 사이의 괴리를 좁히고자 한 노력의 산물이라 볼 수 있다. 이런 배경 속에서 창작된 송두신문은 祭神文의 일종으로서 서두부-전개부-종결부라는 3단계 구성을 취하고 있다. 이때 두창의 순조로운 진행이야말로 두신을 공경히 배송하는 핵심 근거인 만큼, 대부분의 송두신문에는 병증의 규칙적인 진행 과정이 아름답게 묘사되어 있다. 한편, 송두신문은 작자의 삶에 대한 성찰을 표현하는 문학적 장치로 활용되기도 했다. 유희와 윤기는 송두신문을 변주하여, 인간의 운명을 주관한다고 여겨지는 ‘두신’을 소재로 삼아 인간 사회의 禍福과 窮達에 대한 성찰을 드러냈다. 현재의 관점에서 송두신문을 보면, 조선 시대 문인들이 두신에게 복을 비는 것은 비합리적인 행동으로 여겨질 수 있다. 하지만 송두신문의 창작은 조선 시대 문인들이 나름의 논리로 전염병의 유행을 설명하고, 그러한 해석을 토대로 두창의 공포를 극복하려고 한 노력의 일환이었다고 볼 수 있다. I noted the continuous creation of the Songdusinmun in the late Joseon Dynasty. So this paper is aimed to examine the background and contents of the Songdusinmun and the meaning of the creation of the Songdusinmun. Smallpox was a fear disease that claimed many lives during the Joseon Dynasty. As a result, the practice of serving a god of smallpox was widespread in the private sector. Not only among the general public, but also among the family members of the nobility and the royal family, the shamanic ritual was held to serve the god of smallpox. As shaman rituals to worship the god of smallpox became popular, ‘smallpox’, which was not the main theme of the poem, became a theme of the poem. Lee Hyun-suk’s “Seongduga” is the first literary expression of the sacredness of smallpox. Lee Hyeon-seok wrote “Seongduga” to celebrate King Sukjong’s recovery from illness. Lee Hyeon-seok praised smallpox in his work. Lee Hyun-seok’s “Seongduga” had a direct and indirect influence on the creation of the Songdusinmun. During the Joseon Dynasty, Confucian scholars criticized the shaman rituals to worship the god of smallpox. But in the absence of a sure cure for smallpox, it was hard to deny the existence of the god of smallpox. The Songdusinmun is the literary style that emerged from this contradiction. Writers of the Joseon Dynasty tried to reasonably explain the mystical forces of the god of smallpox through the Songdusinmun. For example, Chae Ji-hong identifed the god of smallpox as “the energy of yin and yang that goes back and forth”. Kang Pil-sin identified the god of smallpox as the ghost who cannot receive ancestral rites. Most other writers believed that there was the god to be incharge of smallpox, because smallpox’ symptoms were carried out regularly. Although they differed from the perspective of seeing the god of smallpox, they generally acknowledged the mystical forcesr of the god of smallpox, and argued that the way to properly worship the god of smallpox was to send the god off by making poems, not by the shamanic style. The Songdusinmun, which was created against this backdrop, consists of three stages: the beginning, the development, and the ending. The opening part describes the existence of the god of smallpox, the development part describes the progress of smallpox, and the ending part sends the god of smallpox off. As smallpox’s smooth progress is the key reason for the worship the god of smallpox, most the Songdusinmun beautifully depict the regular progress of the disease. On the other hand, the style of the Songdusinmun transformed into literature to reveal writer’s philosophy of life. From the current point of view, it can be considered unreasonable for writers of the Joseon Dynasty to lean on the god of smallpox and pray for their blessings. However, considering the background of the emergence of the Songdusinmun and its contents, the continuous creation of the Songdusinmun cannot be dismissed as unreasonable acts. The creation of the Songdusinmun was part of the efforts of writers in the Joseon Dynasty to explain the epidemic with their own logic and overcome the fear of smallpox.

조선시대 사대부의 두창신(痘瘡神)에 대한 이해와 의례

이욱 종교문화비평학회 2020 종교문화비평 Vol.38 No.38

This study examined the Joseon Literati’s responses to and understanding of smallpox, which was one of the prevalent diseases in the late Joseon dynasty, and the smallpox spirit. The Joseon literati believed that the best way to avoid smallpox was to evacuate to a safer place. While there were cases where people risked their lives to hold their parents’ funerals, most literati performed minimal rituals under evaluation and in isolation. This was possible through the active use of shinju(神主), the ancestral tablet, and jibang(紙榜), the ancestral tablet made with paper. Another factor was a rise in the number of people who became immune to the disease, and the fact that smallpox became an infectious disease that mostly affected infants and children. Under such changes, parents began to form an understanding of smallpox, which led to the literati to write Songdushinmun(送痘神文). Songdushinmun was a type of writing addressed to the smallpox spirit once a family member suffered and overcame smallpox. It was mostly a note of gratitude for saving the life of one’s child, but it also led to a question of whether the writer accepted the smallpox spirit as a god. In the background of the discussion on whether a spirit that gave people diseases should be revered was the Neo-Confucian discourse on ghosts and spirits. Amid such discourses, the literati considered smallpox to be a necessary rite of passage for a young child to become an adult, and understood the smallpox spirit as a ghost that helped the children pass the rite. The ritual of sending away the smallpox spirit was an expression of gratitude toward such help, and normalcy was recovered through this ritual of gratitude. 본고는 조선후기 성행하였던 전염병 중에서 두창(痘瘡)과 두창신(痘瘡神)에 대한 사대부의 반응과 이해에 관한 연구이다. 조선시대 사대부는 두창이 발생하면 안전한 곳으로 피신하는 것을 최상의 방법으로 여겼다. 부모와 조상의 상장례를 거행하기 위해 죽음을 무릅쓰고 경우도 있었지만 그들은 도피와 격리 속에서 최소한의 의례만을 수행하였다. 이것을 가능하게 한 것은 신주(神主)나 지방(紙榜)의 적극적인 활용이었다. 빈소나사당을 집에 마련하는 유교 의례의 특징 때문에 가족들이 자칫 집에 고착될 수 있으나이동 가능한 신주가 도피를 용이하게 해주었다. 또한 현장에서 쉽게 만들 수 있는 지방역시 이동의 부담을 줄여주었다. 한편, 면역력을 가진 사람이 증가하여 두창이 유아기전염병으로 점차 전환되면서 두창에 대한 이해는 부모의 자리에서 주로 이루어졌고, 그결과물의 하나가 사대부들은 〈송두신문(送痘神文)〉이었다. 〈송두신문〉은 가족 중에 두창에 걸렸다가 회복되면 두창신 전송하기 위해 짓는 글이다. 자녀의 목숨을 보존해준 것을감사하는 것이 주요 내용이지만 이에 덧붙여 두창신을 신으로 받아들일 수 있는가라는변증 또한 여기서 볼 수 있다. 인간에게 질병을 일으키는 귀신을 공경으로 섬길 수 있는가에 대한 논의는 신유학적인 귀신론을 배경으로 하고 있다. 그 가운데 사대부들은 두창을 어린 아이가 어른으로 성장하기 위해 필요한 관문으로 간주하고, 이 관문을 잘 통과할 수 있도록 도와주는 귀신으로 두창신을 이해하였다. 두창신을 보내는 의식은 이 공로에 대한 감사였고, 이 감사의 의식을 통해서 일상은 다시 회복되었다. 이러한 두신에 대한 이해를 바탕으로 사대부들은 두창신을 보내는 의식을 수용하여 거행하였다. 마마 배송굿 또는 손님굿으로 알려진 두창신의 전송의례는 무당에 의해 주도되었다. 그러나 사대부들은 무당을 배제하고 송두신문을 읽으며 두창신을 전송하였다. 이러한 두창신의전송 의식은 궁궐에서도 거행하여 그 의식을 자세히 볼 수 있었다

에도시대 두창의 예방과 치료: 인두법의 수용을 중심으로

김영수 의료역사연구회 2024 의료사회사연구 Vol.13 No.-

본 논문에서는 일본에서 두창 유행에 대응하는 하나의 방식으로 인두법이 도입된 과정과 그 전개를 확인하고자 하였다. 그리고 인두법의 도입과 실천이 당대 사회에 끼친 영향에 대하여도 함께 살펴보고자 하였다. 이를 위해 먼저 일본에서 두창이 유행한 역사를 정리하고, 두창에 대한 예방책이라고 할 수 있는 인두법이 도입되고 전개되는 과정을 정리하였다. 인두법이 도입된 시기는 18세기 중반이나, 약 반 세기에 걸쳐 인두법을 실천하는 과정이 진행되었다. 여러 의가들이 인두법에 도전했지만 일회성에 그치면서 오가타 슌사쿠(緖方春朔)가 인두법을 본격적으로 시행한 것으로 본다. 그는 인두법에 관한 경험과 지식을 종두필순변(種痘必順辨) 등의 의서에 담았다. 그는 일본에 들어온 중국식 인두법을 그대로 실시하기보다 일본의 기후환경을 고려하고, 종두효과를 높일 수 있는 독자적인 인두법을 전개했다. 다만 당시 두창에 적극적으로 대응하는 방식은 인두법이라는 예방법을 사용하는 것이 아니라 진단과 약으로 두창을 치료하는 것이었다. 오가타 슌사쿠가 인두법을 활발히 실시하던 시기에 막부는 의학관에 두과를 설치하여 이케다류(池田流)라는 두창을 진단하고 치료하는 방식을 확산시켰다. 방법은 달랐지만, 이와 같은 두창 예방과 치료를 둘러싼 경합은 19세기 초 일본에서 두창에 관한 의학지식과 경험이 축적되는 계기가 되었다. 그리고 인두법은 처음에는 중국에서 들어왔으나, 점차 난학과 우두법에 관한 지식과 결합하며 다양한 방식으로 시도되었다. 학문적, 기술적인 변화 속에서 난방의를 중심으로 하는 다양한 형태의 인두법의 시도는 이후 우두법의 도입을 촉진하는 요인으로 작동했다고 하겠다. 인두법을 도입하고 실천하는 과정에서 학문의 경계를 넘어선 19세기 초의 일본 의학의 특징을 엿볼 수 있다. This paper explores the introduction of smallpox variolation (人痘法) as a means of addressing the smallpox epidemic during the Edo period in Japan. It also investigates the impact of smallpox variolation on Japanese society during the late Edo period. I begin by outlining the history of smallpox epidemics in Japan. Subsequently, I document the process of introducing and developing smallpox variolation, which was considered a valuable preventive measure against smallpox during that period. While smallpox variolation was introduced in the mid-18th century, it took about half a century for the practice to be effectively implemented. Several physicians attempted variolation during this period, but Ogata Shunsaku (緖方春朔) was renowned as the first to succeed on a large scale, particularly with children. He authored works such as “Shutohissunben (種痘必順辨)” to advocate for the effectiveness of variolation. Additionally, rather than simply adopting the Chinese method of variolation, he developed his own method that took into consideration Japan's unique climate and environment, hoping to enhance the efficacy of variolation. During that time, the prevailing response to the smallpox epidemic focused on diagnosis and treatment using medicine rather than variolation. While Ogata Shunsaku actively practiced variolation, the shogunate established an institution within the medical department tasked with the prevention and treatment of smallpox. This institution propagated the Ikeda-ryu (池田流) method, which specialized in diagnosing and treating smallpox. Despite disparities in approaches, competition between smallpox prevention and treatment catalyzed the accumulation of relevant medical knowledge and experience in Japan during the early 19th century. Initially, variolation was introduced from China; however, over time, researchers experimented with it in various ways, integrating knowledge from Rangaku (蘭學) and cowpox inoculation (牛痘法). Responding to academic and technical developments, Ranpoi (蘭方醫) made diverse attempts at variolation that served as precursors to the eventual adoption of cowpox inoculation. Examining the process of variolation’s introduction and implementation elucidates the characteristics of early 19th-century Japanese medicine that transcended disciplinary boundaries.

한국과 몽골의 두창(痘瘡) 관련 치료전통 고찰 - 역사적 사례와 전통의학적 극복 노력을 중심으로 -

이선아,린칭출템수렝 한국몽골학회 2014 몽골학 Vol.0 No.38

An interest in pediatric disease has developed with possessing the considerable weight in the long tradition of traditional medicine and Folklore in Korea and Mongolia. The traditional medicine of Mongolia addresses pediatric disease treatment as special category enough to regard it as more difficult to cure one woman than curing ten men and as more difficult to cure one baby than ten women. Meanwhile, Korea could be confirmed to have recognized pediatrics as the separately independent division following the Goryeo period (12th year of King Munjong in Goryeo, Year in 1057) through are cord on medical book in those days. Especially, the history of pediatrics in the Joseon period that the survival rate of in fant shad been below 50% due to infectious disease was a fight with infectious disease like smallpox and majin(麻疹, measles) in a word. This therapeutic tradition was actively transmitted as folk culture accompanied by relevant ritual and custom even in the folklore as well as the national dimension such as issuing the specialized medial book focusing on a Royal family. In particular, the weight of Duchang(痘瘡, smallpox, mama, cheonyeondu/Mongolian language, Бодоо) out of pediatric diseases was considerable. Smallpox was the core disease of pediatrics in traditional medicine such as being steadily issued the specialized medical book in curing smallpox among traditional medical books. Even though smallpox was ever authorized as a disease that was perfectly eradicated in modern society, it is a disease that had retained fatal property of causing collapse in one family and one community as well as one individual’s life as the most threatening disease in the world disease history. Even in the disease history of Korea and Mongolia, there are quite historical cases that brought about individual and social impact caused by smallpox. Hence, in traditional society of Korea and Mongolia, the perception and a will to overcome epidemic called smallpox were strong and had great influence as the primitive and desperate survival aspect in comparison with any cultural motive. This aspect is being thoroughly found in the whole of myth & folklore, literature & art, and science & technology as well as politics and history of two nations. Especially in the category of folk culture that is being transmitted with being literally projected the civilian life, the smallpox has functioned as important key word. Even out of it, the image of deifying epidemic called smallpox and of trying to overcome this with a rite in the category of therapeutic folklore is shown noticeably in typical genre of folk culture in Korea and Mongolia. In this way, in the traditional medicine and Folklore of Korea and Mongolia, the intention of curing pediatric disease, especially, smallpox with high morbidity in children was strong. This therapeutic intention became a major factor of forming the cultural basis of two races in Korea and Mongolia.

朝鮮前期 痘瘡 流行과 『瘡疹集』

김성수(Seongsu Kim) 한국한의학연구원 2010 한국한의학연구원논문집 Vol.16 No.1

The smallpox or chanjin(瘡疹), from Korea Dynasty when the name concretely is discussed to Joseon Dynasty, was very one of the diseases which were important. Not only the public but also the royal family could not avoid the pain which is caused by with the smallpox. Also as a scar and fear that the smallpox leave on, the smallpox was called a God(痘瘡神). As the prayer and sacrificial rites primarily could not relieve the nation and the community from a smallpox, an intellectual finally had to remind that if people considered a factor which caused the smallpox, they could cure this disease. That was Nam Hyoon(南孝溫) who rejected a goast to cause a smallpox. And the compilation of " Changjinjip(瘡疹集)" changed recognition about a smallpox. Especially, the compilation of "Changjinjip" was very important in the history of Korean medicine. Because it told what "Uibanglyuchui(醫方類聚)" the national compilation project of medicine book that King Sejong promoted leaved. The "Changjinjip(瘡疹集)" adopted two kind methods. The one was the medical history or with medical theoretic history method: arranged a various medical theory about "changjin" like "Uibanglyuchui" . The other was the clinical method of presenting theories and prescriptions as causes and mutations: reformed contents of "Uibanglyuchui" . In addition to special medicine book of smallpox, "Changjinjip" gave knowledge about a paradigm of "Uibanglyuchui" and methods of medical book compilation in later.

“A frightful spectre, to myself unknown”: The Speckled Monster and “Pox’d” Women in Lady Mary Wortley Montagu

( Jane Lim ) 한국18세기영문학회 2021 18세기영문학 Vol.18 No.1

Smallpox, an endemic famously dubbed the “speckled monster” because it left scarring and pigmentation on the skin, pervaded the literary imagination of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century England. In 1716, a year after she recovered from smallpox, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu wrote “Satturday: The Smallpox” as part of a series of Town Eclogues that probe the cultural condition of fashionable women. This paper attends to Montagu’s response to eighteenth-century “poxed” women whose diseased and disfigured bodies allegedly serve as a measure of the nation state’s physical and moral health. Specifically, I read the “poxed” woman not just as a victim of smallpox but an agent, author, and literary subject who channels that fatal disease as a means of self-recognition and self-fashioning. Montagu charges against accusations that smallpox produces a less than desirable female body. Rather, by giving the diseased body a poetic voice, she dissects the male gaze, a proto-Foucauldian “medical gaze” if you will, that posits dysfunctional women as the locus of public scrutiny and national fear. Through “Satturday,” Montagu presents Flavia, a fictional smallpox victim, as a discursive agent who posits the “poxed” woman as a site of transfiguration rather than disfigurement. The poem responds to smallpox not as a clinical illness but a cultural pathology that mirrors England’s toxic obsession with sanitizing the female body. Montagu thus deploys the smallpox discourse as a traumatic moment of self-estrangement that enables women to articulate their negotiation of interior and exterior self.