20세기 초 중국의 근대국가 구상과 러시아 1차 혁명

양일모 ( Il Mo Yang ) 서울대학교 인문학연구원 2015 人文論叢 Vol.72 No.1

19세기 후반 이후로 아시아 지역이 세계사적 차원에서 식민지 쟁탈의 무대가 되면서, 제정 러시아는 제국주의적 침략에 가담했고 서양 열 강의 일원으로 변신하기 시작했다. 이웃하는 러시아의 변화는 중국인 의 근대국가 구상에 적지 않은 영향을 미쳤으며, 이러한 과정 속에서 러시아에 대한 중국의 인식 또한 위협, 모방, 연대, 공포, 학습, 희망 등 다양한 모습으로 바뀌어 갔다. 이 글은 청일전쟁에서 러시아 1차 혁명 전후에 이르는 약 10여 년간을 중심으로 청조 내부의 다양한 근대 국 가 건설의 구상이 러시아에 대한 인식과 연동되는 과정을 규명하면서, 나아가 중국의 타자에 대한 표상의 구조를 살펴보고자 한다. 1905년 러 시아 1차 혁명에 대한 청의 인식과 그 영향이 그 이전의 러시아 인식과 어떤 관련성이 있는지 하는 측면에서 고찰하고자 한다. 20세기를 전후한 시기에 러시아에 대한 청의 인식이 중국인의 근대 국가 구상에 미치는 영향을 분석하기 위해서는 러시아를 표상하는 담론의 주체에 대한 고찰이 필요할 것이다. 따라서 이 글에서는 왕조체제의 지속을 전제로 정권을 유지하고자 한 조정의 관료, 왕조체제 내에서 개혁을 추구한 사대부 관료, 새롭게 등장한 근대적 지식인과 언론매체, 만주족 정권을 타도하고 공화국을 건설하고자 외친 혁명가들이 각각 격변하는 러시아를 사상의 자원으로 활용하면서 모색하고자 했던 근대 적 구상의 의미를 파악해 보고자 한다. 러시아 혁명을 바라보는 중국의 인식은 다양한 스펙트럼으로 드러 났다. 청조 당국과 관료들에게 러시아 혁명은 혼란과 소요를 미연에 방 지할 수 있는 강력한 군주제를 실현할 수 있는 입헌군주제의 준비를 서두르게 하는 계기가 되었다. 양계초 등과 같은 망명 정치인에게 러시 아 혁명은 전제정체가 바뀌어야 하는 타당성을 실감하게 하는 계기를 부여하고 지방의회의 중요성을 일깨워주는 계기가 되었지만, 한편으로 는 혁명으로 인한 내분의 가능성뿐만 아니라 토지국유와 같은 사회주 의적 정책의 위험성을 알려주는 각성제가 되었다. 청조 타도를 외친 젊 은 학생과 지식인들은 러시아 혁명을 바라보면서 중국에서 군주제도를 타도하는 정치혁명과 노동자 농민의 경제적 자유를 확보하는 사회혁명 의 동시성을 주장하는 자신들의 혁명이론을 강화시켰다. 이처럼 러시 아는 중국의 정치현실과 담론을 형성하는 주체와 맞물려 서로 다른 이 미지로 표상되었다. This article aims to investigate several aspects of interrelation between the various projects of modern nation-building inside the Qing dynasty and their awareness of Russia, and further to examine the structure of representing the Other in modern China, comparing the Chinese recognition of the Russian Revolution of 1905 with their earlier perception of despotic Russia. In order to analyze this problem, it is necessary to inquire into each of the subjects of discourses which produced various imaginations of Imperial Russia. I will consider the different ways of thought expressed by the typical Chinese political social groups, such as the government officials, gentry, modern intellectuals and the mass media, revolutionary groups, while making practical use of Russia as a resource of thinking. I argue that Imperial Russia was represented in different images, depending on the subjects who formed China’s political discourse and reality.

중국 관행 연구와 중국 연구의 재구성 : 試論的 接近

田寅甲(Jeon In-gap),張禎娥(Chang Jung-a) 중국근현대사학회 2010 중국근현대사연구 Vol.48 No.-

This paper aims to search for the possibility of construction of a new paradigm for humanistic China studies in Korea through the study of Chinese social and economic practices. For this purpose, a new understanding is required toward the tradition of the Chinese empire that has been deliberately depreciated by the discourse of modernity through Chinese modern and contemporary history. With the new understanding of the legacy of the Chinese empire, we could investigate how modern and contemporary Chinese have been searching for the construction of a powerful country through seeking the reconstruction of tradition and modernity. In this paper, we focus on the study of Chinese social and economic practices as a method for this new understanding. Practices comprehend not only historicity but also present meaning and rationality. For the path of the development with Chinese characteristics, termed as Chinese model, will be searched for with its own historic and cultural assets, the study of Chinese practices that combines positivistic research and theoretical study could provide a historical prospect of the future of China. Any analysis or general theory without considering the complexity and plurality of Chinese society burdened with the weight of history could be misleading. The objective in-depth analysis of Chinese society requires a close combination of thorough historical and positivistic research and theoretical study based on it. Through the combination of research and theoretical study on the Chinese practices proposed by this paper, we could assess the effectiveness of this methodology.

기획논단(企劃論壇) : 중국 관행 연구와 중국 연구의 재구성 -시론적(試論的) 접근(接近)-

전인갑 ( In Gap Jeon ),장정아 ( Jung A Chang ) 한국중국근현대사학회(구 중국근현대사학회) 2010 중국현대사연구 Vol.48 No.-

This paper aims to search for the possibility of construction of a new paradigm for humanistic China studies in Korea through the study of Chinese social and economic practices. For this purpose, a new understanding is required toward the tradition of the Chinese empire that has been deliberately depreciated by the discourse of modernity through Chinese modern and contemporary history. With the new understanding of the legacy of the Chinese empire, we could investigate how modern and contemporary Chinese have been searching for the construction of a powerful country through seeking the reconstruction of tradition and modernity. In this paper, we focus on the study of Chinese social and economic practices as a method for this new understanding. Practices comprehend not only historicity but also present meaning and rationality. For the path of the development with Chinese characteristics, termed as Chinese model, will be searched for with its own historic and cultural assets, the study of Chinese practices that combines positivistic research and theoretical study could provide a historical prospect of the future of China. Any analysis or general theory without considering the complexity and plurality of Chinese society burdened with the weight of history could be misleading. The objective in-depth analysis of Chinese society requires a close combination of thorough historical and positivistic research and theoretical study based on it. Through the combination of research and theoretical study on the Chinese practices proposed by this paper, we could assess the effectiveness of this methodology.

A Tender Voyage: Children and Childhood in Late Imperial China.

Margaret Mih Tillman 성균관대학교 동아시아학술원 2006 Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies Vol.6 No.2

A Tender Voyage: Children and Childhood in Late Imperial China.

Creation of chaste Muslim widows in late imperial Confucian-Islamic cultural encounters

ZHANG Shaodan 이화여자대학교 아시아여성학센터 2023 Asian Journal of Women's Studies(AJWS) Vol.29 No.2

This article examines Chinese-Islamic cultural encounters in the aspect of gender, investigating the issue of widows using Muslims in late imperial China as a case study. Mainly drawing upon historical sources produced by Chinese Muslims themselves, including inscriptions on steles in mosques, genealogies of Chinese Muslim lineages, as well as books written by Chinese Muslims in the late imperial period, this research probes into how Chinese Muslim men and women navigated between disparate Confucian and Islamic gender discourses in both their scholarly discussion and everyday practice. This research notes that from the mid-17th century to the late-19th century, Chinese Muslims displayed transforming attitudes of disapproval, silence, appropriation, and incorporation of Confucian notions of widows’ chastity, despite the Qur’anic discouragement of celibacy. This process did not indicate a decline of Islam amongst these Muslims. On the one hand, they were able to Islamize Confucian concepts and create a unique “Chinese Islamic” gender discourse. On the other hand, the cult of chastity was empowering to Chinese Muslim women, allowing them to expand their social space and be engaged in various communal and public activities of Islam. Women thus began to play a more public role in transmitting Chinese Islamic values and knowledge.

청대(淸代) 민사재판(民事裁判)의 성격(性格)에 관한 논쟁(論爭) -필립 황과 자하수삼(滋賀秀三)의 연구를 중심으로-

홍성화 ( Sung Hwa Hong ) 수선사학회 2007 史林 Vol.0 No.28

They Are Just like the Generations Past: Images of Chinese Women in the Women's Missionary Periodical Woman's Work in China (1884-1885)

Ristivojevic, Dusica 성균관대학교 동아시아학술원 2008 Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies Vol.8 No.2

In this essay the author attempts to contextualize and analyze selected articles published in 1884 and 1885 in the women's missionary periodical Woman's Work in China. Woman's Work in China has here been found exceptionally rewarding for an analysis of the representations of Chinese women. This is not only because it included reports from various parts of the Chinese Empire, but also because the articles were written by Protestant European and American women of various denominations, and thus, most likely addressed a large audience in the foreign community in China and in the West. Since the author observes textual encounters of Western women with Chinese women under imperialism, analysis here is informed by "general" postcolonial theory, as well as by the feminist postcolonial insights on gender aspects within orientalist cultural production. The goal of this article is twofolded: attempting to identify and analyze the constructions of Chinese women that were produced in women missionaries' writings and to relate them with the images of women missionaries that emerged in the same process.

They Are Just Like the Generations Past: Images of Chinese Women in the Women`s Missionary Periodical Woman`s Work in China (1884-1885)

( Dusica Ristivojevic ) 성균관대학교 동아시아학술원 2008 Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies Vol.8 No.2

In this essay the author attempts to contextualize and analyze selected articles published in 1884 and 1885 in the women`s missionary periodical Woman`s Work in China. Woman`s Work in China has here been found exceptionally rewarding for an analysis of the representations of Chinese women. This is not only because it included reports from various parts of the Chinese Empire, but also because the articles were written by Protestant European and American women of various denominations, and thus, most likely addressed a large audience in the foreign community in China and in the West. Since the author observes textual encounters of Western women with Chinese women under imperialism, analysis here is informed by general postcolonial theory, as well as by the feminist postcolonial insights on gender aspects within orientalist cultural production. The goal of this article is twofolded: attempting to identify and analyze the constructions of Chinese women that were produced in women missionaries`` writings and to relate them with the images of women missionaries that emerged in the same process.

청말 개항기 연화(年畵)의 변모 양상

박민정 비교민속학회 2020 비교민속학 Vol.- No.72

This paper scrutinizes the characteristics of Chinese New Year pictures (年畵, nianhua) during the port opening period of Qing Dynasty. Nianhua refers to woodblock prints depicting diverse topics in different compositions and carrying symbolic meanings. They were pasted on the doors and walls of houses or stores in China in the new year to wish for repelling evil spirits, bringing happiness and auspiciousness, and taking precautions against the past wrongdoings. Since these prints contained dominant folk-religious elements and could be mass produced, many Chinese people were able to own them for appreciation and for the expulsion of evil spirits. As China experienced rapid modernization by entering into the Treaty of Nanking with Great Britain in 1842 after the First Opium War (1841~1842) and opening the five ports including Guangzhou, the themes and production sites of these prints changed. By examining the characteristics of nianhua during the port opening period, this paper aims to explore changes in these pictures reflecting folk religion due to the First Opium War. It addresses the characteristics and significance of Chinese New Year pictures in the late Qing period by analyzing the landscapes of concession areas and the circumstances of the publishing industry that influenced the production of nianhua prints after the opening of the ports as well as the new topics of these prints, including the Taiping Rebellion, anti-imperialism, satire, enlightenment, and the products of civilization, all of which were related to the port opening. Moreover, printmaking aspects of Chinese New Year pictures after the opening of the ports in the late Qing period can be characterized by the continuation of traditional color stencil printing technique, which began to be utilized from the Ming Dynasty, and the reflection of Western-style painting style. Chinese New Year pictures produced using color stencil printing technique were dominant in Suzhou and Wuxing regions. The use of stencil printing technique was verified in nianhua prints created after the opening of the ports. In the case of Chinese New Year pictures in the Western-style painting style, a depth perception was created applying one-point perspective. Such Western-style painting style used in depicting new topics, enlightenment and the products of civilization, in nianhua prints produced after the opening of the ports enhanced visual images, which was characteristic of Chinese New Year pictures from this period. 본 글은 청나라 말기의 개항기 연화(年畵)의 특색에 대하여 연구하였다. 연화는 중국에서 새해에 가정이나 가게의 문, 벽에 붙여 벽사(辟邪)․진경(進慶)․길상(吉祥)․감계(鑑戒)를 기원하는 것으로서 다양한 주제와 구도 및 상징적 의미를 표현한 판화를 일컫는다. 따라서 민속 신앙적 요소를 강하게 보여주며 판화라는 대량 생산의 이점이 있어 다수의 사람들이 감상과 벽사적 의미로 소유할 수 있었다. 이러한 연화는 1차 아편전쟁(1841~1842) 후 영국과 난징조약(1842)을 맺게 되면서 광저우 등 5개 항을 개항하는 등 중국의 근대화가 빠르게 진행될 즈음에 새로운 주제와 생산지의 변화를 보여준다. 본문에서는 이 시기에 나타나는 연화의 특색을 파악해봄으로서 전쟁으로 인하여 민속신앙을 반영한 연화의 변모 양상을 살펴보고자 한다. 이에 개항 이후 조계지역의 풍경과 연화 생산에 영향을 미친 출판업의 정황, 개항 후 나타난 태평천국 운동, 반제국주의, 풍자, 계몽, 신문물을 주제로 표현된 연화에 대하여 분석하였다. 나아가 이를 통하여 이시기 연화의 판화적 특색을 규명해보고자 하였다. 즉, 청나라 말엽의 개항 후 연화의 판화적 면모는 명대부터 이어온 다색투인판화의 전통기법을 이어옴과 동시에 서양화법이 반영된 점을 특색으로 꼽을 수 있다. 특히 이러한 구도법이 계몽 주제와 신문물을 표현한 연화에 도입해 표현한 것은 주제와 기법의 결합이 사회 변화라는 흐름과 동일시되어 나타남으로써 연화의 시각이미지를 극대화 시켰다고 본다. 이로써 연화라는 민속예술이 당시 사회의 모습 등 시대상을 충실히 담아내었음을 확인할 수 있으며, 민속문 화가 끊임없는 변화와 창의적 예술 활동을 통하여 연속적으로 이루어졌음을 확인할 수 있다.

Late Qing parliamentarism and the borderlands of the Qing Empire—Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang (1906–1911)

Egas Moniz Bandeira 한양대학교 아태지역연구센터 2020 Journal of Eurasian Studies Vol.11 No.1

The article examines the relationship between the late Qing constitutional movement of 1905–1911 and the vast borderland regions of the Qing Empire–that is, Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang. It traces how intellectuals and officials concerned with devising constitutional policies foresaw the integration of these regions into the nascent parliamentary institutions at the provincial and central levels. The article argues that the status of the borderlands played a significant role in late Qing constitutional debates, and that debates on borderland constitutionalism were a phenomenon of a wider constitutional wave affecting Eurasia in the 1900s. Chinese intellectuals and officials felt the competition of the emerging parliamentary institutions in Russia and the Ottoman Empire, and anticipating that constitutional and parliamentarist movements among Mongols, Tibetans, and Turki could lead to the separation of the respective regions, they hoped that parliamentary representation, albeit limited, would be an instrument against centrifugal tendencies on the borders. Hence, they called for constitutional reforms in China and for the inclusion of the borderland populations into the new parliamentary institutions. Yet, arguing with the sparse population of the borderlands as well as with their alleged economic and cultural backwardness, they denied the direct application of the constitutional plan to these territories. The differentiated policies eventually applied to the borderlands were a lackluster compromise between these conflicting interests.