한반도 출토 덩이쇠[板狀鐵斧 · 鐵鋌]의 성격과 의미

박선미(Park, Sun-mi) 백산학회 2011 白山學報 Vol.- No.89

Iron ingots were unearthed from ancient tombs from the First century B.C to A.D. sixth century in Korean peninsula. Excavation reports have classified them into three types with terms that are problematic, however because they are confusing : 1) the ingot ‘flat iron axe’ which is often mistaken with the identically named ‘flat iron axe’ tool, 2) the ingot ‘rod shaped(棒狀)’ which is confusing on sorted into axe or ingot and 3) ‘iron ingots’ which is confusing as a term for just a type of ingot because it is also the general term for all iron ingots. In this paper, I will refer instead to the three types as the ‘flat axe type(板狀鐵斧形)’, ‘rod type(棒狀形)’ and ‘iron ingot type(鐵鋌形)’. Even though a number of studies have been conducted by Korean academic societies, most have been limited by focusing only on the typology and manufacturing of each type separately. But as is well documented, the three types evolved over time from each other, beginning with the ‘flat axe type’, followed by the ‘rod type’, and finally, the ‘ingot type’. I will argue they therefore share significant characteristics and should be studied together, not just individually, as they have been thus far. Interestingly, the fact that all three iron ingot types have no traces of their former use and were excavated in bundles suggests they were not used as tools. Moreover, analysis of the alloy composition of identical ingots found on both the Korean peninsula and Japanese archipelago indicates they were made not for tools but for trade. And some of ingots that were unearthed in Japan were imported from Korea. The exchange with centering on ingots between the Korean and Japanese ancient societies is comparable to the trade between British and France using bronze axes with sockets as a ‘pre-monetary’ unit from the late Bronze Age to the early iron Age(around 800-600B.C.) Research revealed the extraordinarily high lead composition of these axes, which would have made them unfit for use as tools and most archaeologists and anthropologists therefore assume they were used instead as ‘pre-monetary’ units for trade. The bronze axes with sockets in European trade were important precursors that should be compared with the similarly used iron ingots of Korean and Japanese trade.

호서지역 철정의 분포정형으로 본 유통양상의 변화와 제철기술의 확대

이춘선 호서고고학회 2020 호서고고학 Vol.0 No.46

The iron ingots is an important trade item in the Samhan region that the situation of the Samhan in the third century is recorded in Wiji Dongi-jeon of 『三國志(Samgukji)』. 弁辰韓(Byeonjinhan) was at the center and the records indicate that a significant volume was produced that Mahan, Oi (Japan), Nakrang, and Daebang made purchases. It could be attributed in the fact that the excavated volume in the Gimhae region of the Geumgwan Gaya was substantial and the trend of the burial ritual was overwhelming. Mahan, considered as a main location of consumption, particularly in the Hoseo region, showed increased excavated volume that the characteristics of the iron ingots distribution with these regions could be learned. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to focus on the relics excavated from iron ingots of the Hoseo region within the Mahan territory and take a look at the shift of distribution for iron ingots and the process of developing the ironing technology through the distribution formation in each region. For this purpose, the formation of the iron ingots excavated around the tomb sites in the Hoseo region is classified, set forth 5 phases in a way of comparing than with the excavated items from the Byeonjinhan region that is considered as the core part of the iron ingot distribution through the analysis on distribution formation for each phase and clarify that the iron ingots were flowing in through the exchanges with those regions. First of all, the distribution trend of the iron ingots had its phase one was in the Hoseo region with the phase one rod-like iron ingots to be confirmed in the tomb site of the highest hierarchy in the inner part of Hoseo in the Mihocheon basin, and the rod-like iron ingots that is confirmed in the inner part of Hoseo in the first part of the second century was on the trade with Byeonjinhyan that the trade route with them was centered around the inland trade connected to the upper stream of Nakdong-gang through Chupungryeon, Hwaryeong and Gyerim-ryeongas the transportation routes that connecting the inland of Youngnam and Inland of Hoseo and it could be confirmed through the relics status and burial ceremony commonly accompanies in each region of Mahan and Byeongjinhan. Thereafter, the flat-type iron ingots that is confirmed around the Hoseo coastline after the mid-third century for the phase two was exchanged with the Geumgwan Gaya region around the ruling class. The trade route for the iron ingots distribution was secured through the nearby coastal sea of southern coast - western coast after securing the sea route of the western-southern coasts by subsiding the war that was to attach Gara (Gyyaguk (구야국) by the Pyosang Palguk (eight small states in the region) that were existed in the western-southern coasts. The inland transportation route could be confirmed through the trade items confirmed from each region as the result made through Yuksipryeong and Palryeongchi with close cooperation with Anra-guk. Thereafter, for the Namgang Inland route was continued as the trade route for Baekje and Gaya. In the phase to have the iron ingots to be standardized after the mid-fourth century for phase three, the burial goods as the mid to upper class in the region increases to have the burial of the smith's tools also increased together with the iron ingots. After the mid-fifth century for phase four, the transport route of the southwestern coastline is mainly used and the inland of Hoseo is transferred to the segmentation process of Baekje to bring the advancement of the ironing technology for expanding into the living relics. 철정은 삼한지역의 중요한 교역품으로 3세기 삼한의 상황을 묘사한 『三國志』 魏志 東夷傳에서도 기록되어 있다. 변진한이 중심이고 이것을 마한, 왜, 낙랑, 대방에서 사간다고 할 정도 많은 양이 생산되었다고 기록하고 있다. 이에 대변하듯 구야국인 김해지역에서 출토량이 월등하고 부장의 양상에서도 압도적이다. 주요 소비지로 생각되는 마한, 그 중 호서지역 내에서 출토량이 증가하고 있어 이들 지역과의 철정유통의 성격을 파악할 수 있게 되었다. 따라서, 이 연구는 마한지역 중 호서지역의 철정을 중심으로 철기생산의 유통망의 변화를 살펴보고 각 지역 내 분포정형을 통해 철정의 유통의 변화와 이를 통한 제철기술 발달의 과정을 살펴보는 것을 목적으로 한다. 이를 위해 호서지역 분묘를 중심으로 출토되는 철정의 형식을 분류하고 5단계를 설정하여 단계별 그 분포정형에 따른 분석을 통해 철정유통의 중심이라고 생각되는 변·진한지역 출토품과 비교하고 이들과의 교류를 통해 철정이 유입됨을 분명히 하였다. 먼저, 철정의 유통양상은 1단계는 2세기 전반 호서내륙으로 확인되는 봉상형철정은 변·진한과의 교역에 의한 것으로 이들과의 교역로로는 영남의 내륙과 호서내륙을 이어주는 교통로인 추풍령, 육십령, 계림령, 팔령치를 통한 육로 교역이 중심이였음을 마한과 변·진한 지역 각각에서 공반되는 유물상과 부장의례를 통해 확인할 수 있다. 이후, 2단계 3세기 중반이후로 호서해안을 중심으로 확인되는 판상형철정은 변한 지역이 철정유통의 중심세력으로 부상하며 철정이 유통되는 교역로는 동남부해안의 존재하였던 포상팔국들의 가라(구야국)을 공격하는 전쟁을 진압하면서 서남해안의 해로를 확보한 후 남해안-서해안 연근해 해상의 교역로를 통한 결과임을 각 지역에서 확인되는 교역물품을 통해 확인할 수 있다. 이후 두 교통로가 이용되기 시작하였다. 철정의 유통은 호서지역 내 1단계 봉상형 철정은 미호천유역 호서내륙의 최고위계 묘역에서 확인되며, 2단계 서남해안에서 확인되는 판상형 철정은 서산 해안지역 수장층을 중심으로 교류한다. 이 단계까지 각 지역 철정의 유통에서 엄격한 통제가 있었으나 3단계 4세기 중엽 이후 철정이 규격화되는 단계에서는 지역 내 중상위 계층으로 부장되는 유구가 증가하며 철정과 함께 단야도구의 부장도 증가한다. 4단계는 서남해안의 교통로가 주로 이용되며 호서내륙은 백제의 영역화과정에 편입되어 지역 내 제철기술의 발전을 가져와 주거지나 환호 등 생활유적으로도 확대된다. 철정의 단순한 변형제작을 통한 의기성 철기의 부장이 시작되는 시점에서 변한의 철정 유통은 쇠퇴하며 백제의 의한 철기가 제작되는 시점과 일치한다. 5단계에 소형철정이 부장되는 유구는 가야와 관련있는 토기유물이 출토하고 있다.

3~5세기 호서지역 철정(鐵鋌)의 전개와 지역성

김대영(Gim Dae Young) 한국고대학회 2013 先史와 古代 Vol.38 No.-

본고는 호서지역에서 최근 출토사례가 증가하고 있는 철정(鐵鋌)에 대한 연구를 통하여 백제권역에서 확인된 철정의 전개와 그 지역성을 알아보고자 하였다. 연구는 개별유적에서 확인된 철정을 중심으로 형태분석과 지역별 분포특성을 파악하는 것을 기초로 하였다. 분석결과 철정은 크기변화와 신부ㆍ광폭단부ㆍ협폭단부의 형태변화에서 시간성이 파악되며,충남서북부권과 금강하류권의 철정은 서로 다른 전개과정을 갖는 것을 알 수 있었다. 충남서북부권의 철정은 초대형의 철정부터 소형의 철정까지 크기와 형태 면에서 계기적인 변화가 보인다. 또한 철정을 관(곽)의 모서리에 세워서 부장하는 사례가 확인되며, 대부분의 철정이 피장자의 머리 부분에 부장된다는 특징도 있다. 금강유역권은 중류권과 하류권으로 권역 구분을 할 수 있는데, 금강하류권의 철정은 무덤의 중앙부나 발치에 부장되는 비율이 높으며, 다른 지역의 철정에 비하여 그 두께가 매우 두껍다는 특징이 있다. 호서지역에서 전형적인 철정이 등장하는 시기는 3세기 후반을 전후한 시점으로, 이는 한반도 전역에 걸쳐 거의 동시기에 일어나는 것으로 판단된다. 이후 철정의 전개는 지역권 별로 각각 특성에 따라 전개되나 6세기를 전후한 시점에 들어서면서 호서지역의 철정은 그 존재가 확인되지 않는다. 이는 철기가 국가의 중요 산물인 점을 고려할 때 백제 중앙과의 관계에서 이해되어야 할 것으로 추론된다. This paper has been written to investigate the deployment of Iron Ingots identified in the regions of Baekje and its meaning through the study on iron ingots of which the excavation cases is recently increasing in the Hosea region. In this study, focused on iron ingots identified in the individual ruins, their forms were analysed and geographic distribution characteristics were studied. According to the results of the analysis it was found that iron ingots showed changes in size and forms of body prat and narrow end part, and were divided into Chungnam northwestern region type and Geungang river basin type. It could be confirmed that the iron ingots identified in Chungnam northwestern region showed instrumental changes ranging from the supersized one to the small one and the characteristic that the most of them were buried beside the head part putting them in the upright position at the corner of coffin(case). Geungang river basin type can be divided into the midstream region type and the downstream region type. The iron ingots in the Geungang river downstream region shows the characteristics that their burials at the central part of the grace or beside the feet are proportionally high, and their thickness is very large in comparison the iron ingots in other regions. It could be known that the period of the typical ingots’ appearing in Hoseo region was the second half of the third century, which was also similar in Yeongnam region or in the Honam region. However, ita is judged that in the contrary to this appearance of iron ingot around the Korean peninsular almost at the same time, the deployment of the iron ingots afterwards was different by the regions. Just the existence of iron ingots of Hoseo region was not confirmed coming into the period before and after the 6th century, which is supposed that it should be understood in the relation with central power of the Baekje, considering that the iron instrument were the important products of the country. Further it could be known that the uses of the iron ingots were not restricted to only one. The original use of iron ingots has been as the intermediate material, but, due to this character of intermediate material they also had been used as the currency for barter exchange. And it is supposed that the symbolistic character of bixie had appeared due to the own character of the iron together with the value as the currency.

Silicon ingot diameter modeling in Czochralski process and its dynamic simulation

정재학,Jin Soo Park,Minkyo Seo,Hyun Jung Oh 한국화학공학회 2008 Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering Vol.25 No.4

Silicon wafers are manufactured by cutting an ingot into the same thickness. The Czochralski process is a representative method for making an ingot. During manufacture, the ingot diameter is affected by the pull speed and heat transfer amount. Therefore, controlling the ingot manufacturing process involves controlling the ingot diameter related to pull speed and controlling the heater power supply to maintain the pull speed within the allowable range. The modeling of ingot diameter can be established by the ingot pull speed change based on an understanding of the mechanism of heat transfer, and the calculation of the heat transfer amount between all the parties of the crystal growth furnace according to the energy balance equations. Comparing the simulation results with real process results, the step change of the heater showed 1st or 2nd process dynamics at all points with a time delay of 18 minutes, which was similar to that of the real process. Furthermore, the pull speed step change exhibited a 5 min time delay from the test spot, which confirmed the relation between the integral and process properties. This result is similar to the real process, too. With a specific ingot length, the temperature in each point of the furnace in the real process was similar to these simulation results.

대형 중실/중공 잉곳의 청정도 비교분석연구

남궁 정(J. Namkung),김용찬(Y. C. Kim),이동희(D. H. Lee),오상훈(S. H. Oho),김남수(N. S. Kim) 한국소성가공학회 2010 한국소성가공학회 학술대회 논문집 Vol.2010 No.5

The cleanness of a large steel ingot is an important factor in affect to the physical properties and quality grade of the worked products. The nonmetallic inclusions, oxide particles and retained hydrogen in solidified ingots are the main cause of decreasing the degree of cleanness of cast product. The retained contents of inclusions and hydrogen are varied in locations of the cast part, shapes and casting process conditions. In this study, a large solid steel ingot and hollow one were casted and analyzed for the degree of cleanness, oxygen and hydrogen content distribution in the cross sectioned each ingot. The hydrogen content is higher in the center region than in the side part of the ingot, but the content of oxide inclusion, oxygen content was reveres one. Also, the solid ingot was show the high content distribution with hydrogen, but the hollow ingot was show the one with oxygen in the ingot.

CAE 해석을 활용한 대형 중공 잉곳 제조 연구

오상훈(S. H. Oh),이동희(D. H. Lee),남궁정(J. Namkung),김난수(N. S. Kim) 한국소성가공학회 2010 한국소성가공학회 학술대회 논문집 Vol.2010 No.5

The solidification patterns and internal microstructures of hollow ingot are investigated at various ingot casting experiments, using an optical microscopy and a computer simulation analysis. An ingot shape and casting conditions of very large hollow ingot with about 37ton weight are obtained throughout a computer simulation analysis using these experimental data. To verify these predicted data, a large hollow ingot of 37ton grade is manufactured, and then examined its internal qualities such as segregation grade and solidification pattern. It is found that these experimental results are well agreed with the predicted ones by a computer simulation. It is observed that the hollow ingot has less segregation band and low hot-top shrinkage than those of conventional ingot. Especially, the solidification defects are not observed in the hollow ingot.

미륵사지 석탑 출토 사리장엄 금제유물의 재료학적 특성

권혁남,유동완,이장존,한민수 국립문화재연구원 2014 헤리티지:역사와 과학 Vol.47 No.4

When sarira reliquary was found in stone pagoda of Mireuksa Temple, there were 494 gold artifacts, including inner gold pot, gold plate with inscription for Sarira enshrinement, etc. Most of gold artifacts were crafted, but there were 22 gold plates and 4 gold ingots, which did not have any specific shape. It was considered that they had not been crafted. Since gold exists as a metal rather than a metallic oxide in nature, in general, it can be crafted by melting and shaping. However, gold in nature has impurities so it has to be refined to have malleability. The characteristic features were identified through the analysis of gold artifacts from sarira reliquary found in stone pagoda of Mireuksa Temple. The analysis result showed that there were 3 types of gold; pure gold artifacts, artifacts produced with silver containing gold and natural gold ingots. Inner gold pot, gold earrings and gold small beads were produced with pure gold and they contained less than 1wt.% of copper. It seemed like they were produced as pure gold to be shaped by hammering. Gold plate with inscription, tweezers, gold earrings, ingots, etc. were produced with silver containing gold as they had to be more solid. Gold ingots seemed to be natural gold considering the distribution of silver and copper in them, but it cannot be concluded as there are not enough information on gold ingots in Korea. The comprehensive research on gold ingots from various regions in Korea has to be carried out to confirm the above. Sarira Reliquary showed the very sophisticated gold craftsmanship. Gold ingots with the inscriptions, which say 1 nyang, were approximately 14g. Considering the weight of these ingots as standard, weights of other ingots were half nyang(7g), 2 nyang(28g), etc. 익산 미륵사지 석탑에서 출토된 사리장엄 중 금제유물은 사리내호, 봉영기 등 총 494점이다. 금제유물은 대부분 가공을 통해 제작하였으나 이 중 금정 22점과 금괴 4점은 형태를 가지고 있지 않은 금괴로 가공품을 만들기 전 단계의 것으로 판단된다. 일반적으로 금은 자연 상태에서 산화물이 아닌 금속의 형태로 존재하므로 용융, 가공 과정만을 통해서 형태를 제작할 수 있다. 그러나 자연금의 경우 은, 동 등 불순물이 포함되어 있으므로 연성을 가지기 위해서는 정제가 필요하다. 미륵사지 석탑 사리장엄에서 출토된 금제유물을 분석하여 그 특성을 알아보고자 하였다. 분석결과 순금제품과 은이 함유된 금제품, 자연금으로 추정되는 금괴류로 분류할 수 있었다. 순금으로 제작된 유물은 사리내호, 금제고리, 금제소형구슬이며, 1wt.% 내외의 동을 함유하고 있다. 이들 유물들은 두드려 형태를 만들기 위해 순금으로 제작한 것으로 보인다. 은이 함유된 유물은 봉영기, 족집게, 금제고리, 금정, 금괴 등이며, 강도가 필요한 형태를 제작하기 위해 은이 함유된 것으로 보인다. 특히, 금정, 금괴는 은, 동의 분포, 형태로 추정하였을 때 자연금으로 보이나 한국의 자료가 충분하지 않아 단정할 수는 없으며, 향후 다양한 지역의 괴 형태 금제유물에 대한 종합적인 조사가 이뤄져야 가능할 것으로 보인다. 금세공기술면에서는 미륵사지 석탑 출토 사리장엄은 매우 정교한 기술을 보이고 있다. 또한 무게분포를 살펴보았을 때 한 냥의 명문이 있는 것의 무게가 14g 내외로 이를 기준으로 반 냥, 두 냥 등으로 무게가 분포하고 있다.

Self-attenuation Correction of U-235 in Metal Ingot Using MCNP and Gamma Spectroscopy

Sunwoo Lee,Changhyun Ryu,Jungsuk Park,Junghwan Hong,Jichang Ryu,Kwangpyo Kim 한국방사성폐기물학회 2023 한국방사성폐기물학회 학술논문요약집 Vol.21 No.1

Some of the metal waste generated from KEPCO NF is being disposed of in the form of ingots. An ingot is a metal that is melted once and then poured into a mold to harden, and it is characterized by a uniform distribution of radioactive material. When measuring the uranium radioactivity in metal ingot with HPGe detector, 185.7 keV of U-235 is used typically because most gamma rays emitted at U-235 are distributed in low-energy regions below 200 keV. To analyze radioactivity concentration of U-235 with HPGe detector more accurately, self-attenuation due to geometrical differences between the calibration source and the sample must be corrected. In this study, the MCNP code was used to simulate the HPGe gamma spectroscopy system, and various processes were performed to prove the correlation with the actual values. First an metal ingottype standard source was manufactured for efficiency calibration, and the GEB coefficient was derived using Origin program. And through the comparison of actual measurements and simulations, the thickness of the detector’s dead layers were defined in all directions of Ge crystal. Additionally instead of making an metal ingot-type standard source every time, we analyzed the measurement tendency between commercially available HPGe calibration source (Marinelli beaker type) and the sample (metal ingot type), and derived the correction factor for geometry differences. Lastly the correction factor was taken into consideration when obtaining the uranium radioactivity concentration in the metal ingot with HPGe gamma spectroscopy. In conclusion, the U-235 radioactivity in metal ingot was underestimated about 25% of content due to the self-attenuation. Therefore it is reasonable to reflect this correction factor in the calculation of U-235 radioactivity concentration.

TRIZ(6SC)를 활용한 잉곳 인상모듈 및 실리콘 단결정 잉곳 제조장치의 창의적 설계

홍성도,허용정 한국반도체디스플레이기술학회 2012 반도체디스플레이기술학회지 Vol.11 No.2

This paper presents a study on the design of a pulling module for silicon ingot and an apparatus of manufacturing silicon single crystal ingot using the same method. The pulling module is conceptually designed by using TRIZ. Czochralski method(CZ) is representative way to manufacture single crystal ingot for wafers. The seed can be broken by high tension which is caused by large weight of a silicon ingot. The solution of this problem has been derived using 6SC(6 steps creativity)TRIZ. The pulling module is actuated by DC motor and rollers. High tension in the seed is removed by the rotate-elevate motion of rollers in the pulling module. A rubber belt is included in the rotate-elevate mechanism for increasing friction between rollers and silicon ingot.

Internal void closure during the forging of large cast ingots using a simulation approach

Lee, Y.S.,Lee, S.U.,Van Tyne, C.J.,Joo, B.D.,Moon, Y.H. Elsevier 2011 Journal of materials processing technology Vol.211 No.6

Large cast ingots often contain defects or undesirable microstructural features, such as voids and zones related to casting. Some of these features can remain after hot open die forging, which is an important process for converting large cast ingots into wrought components. During the initial cogging and deformation steps prior to the detailed open-die-forging operations, any internal voids should be eliminated. The present work focuses on the closure of internal voids during open die forging so as to produce a sound component. Hot compression tests were conducted to obtain the flow strength of the cast microstructure at different temperatures and strain rates. The measured flow strength data together with other appropriate material properties were used to simulate the forging steps for a large cast ingot. The numerical simulations for the forging deformation and for the internal void behavior were performed using DEFORM-3D(TM). Actual defects were measured in commercial ingots with an X-ray scanner. The simulation results for the void deformation behavior are compared with voids measured before and after forging. Through the comparison of experimental results and numerical simulation, a criterion for void closure is proposed. The criterion is that a local effective strain value of 0.6 or greater must be achieved for void closure during forging. Such a criterion can be used in conjunction with simulations to insure that a sound component is produced during the hot open die forging of large cast ingots.