홍산문화, 현상과 쟁점

김정열(Kim Jungryol) 한국상고사학회 2017 한국상고사학보 Vol.96 No.-

중국의 이른바 ‘東北’은 역사적으로 볼 때 줄곧 ‘중원’과 다른 독자적 문화가 발전한 지역이었다. 특히, 신석기시대 후기에 遼西 일대를 중심으로 번영한 紅山文化는 대형 積石塚과 독특한 형태의 토기, 옥기 등으로 말미암아 세간에 비교적 널리 알려져 있다. 홍산문화는 기원전 4000년기를 전후하여 약 1500년의 시간에 걸쳐 요서 지역의 대릉하와 시라무렌하 일원을 중심으로 번영했다. 홍산문화는 후 기 신석기문화의 한 유형으로, 농업과 수렵 등의 혼합경제를 바탕으로 세련된 옥기를 제작하고 특징 적인 적석총을 건설하였다. 이 문화에서는 원시신앙을 배경으로 한 복합사회가 출현했다. 홍산문화 유적에서 발견되는 독특한 사유와 기술적 성취는 지역적 문화전통으로 수렴되고, 이렇게 형성된 문화 전통은 요서 지역뿐만 아니라 더 넓은 지역에도 다소간의 영향을 주었다. 홍산문화에 대한 이해는 그런 의미에서 동아시아 선사 고고학 연구에서 흥미로우면서도 유용한 작업이 될 것이다. 1980년대 이래 중국에서는 이 홍산문화가 ‘文明’의 출현을 알리는 여러 가지 지표를 갖추고 있으며, 따라서 중국의 ‘문명’이 바로 여기에서 시작되었다고 주장하는 연구자도 적잖이 등장하였 다. 이런 견해는 中華民族多元一體論의 기치 하에 지금의 변경지역까지 ‘中華’의 틀 속에 포 섭하고자 하는 정부의 정책적 지원과, 반만년의 유구한 문명을 강조하여 민족적 자긍심을 고취하려는 민족주의적 정서와 맞물리면서 중국에서 널리 수용되고 있다. 한편, 한국의 일 부 지식인들은 홍산문화의 의례용 옥기의 장식에 곰[熊]이 소재로 사용되었다든지, 아니면 고조선의 墓制가 홍산문화의 적석총을 계승하였다는 생각에 근거하여 홍산문화를 한국의 역사에 편입시켜야 한다고 주장한다. 이와 같은 홍산문화의 성격을 둘러싼 논쟁은 홍산문 화에 대한 이해보다 오히려 그 문화의 계승자가 누구인지에 대한 다분히 비학술적인 논의에 집중되어 있는 것으로 생각된다. 홍산문화를 통해 입증하고자 하는 ‘문명’의 출현은 그 근거가 박약하다. 홍산문화의 사회는 아직 국가를 만들어 낼 만큼 성숙하지 않았다. 황제 역시 근대에 들어서야 중화민족의 국조로 추앙받게 된 신화속의 인물로서, 그에게 특정한 시공간과 문화적 실체를 부여하는 것은 허구이다. 홍산문화가 우리 것인지 아니면 중국 것인지에 대한 논쟁 역시 본디부터 근 대 국민국가 성립 이후의 관점을 선사시대까지 무제한 확장한 소모적인 것에 지나지 않는 다. 그보다는 홍산문화에 대해 자세하고 정확히 이해하고, 그것을 바탕으로 선사시대 동북 아 지역의 인류문화 발전 양상을 파악하는 것이 우리에게 훨씬 유용하다. 홍산문화에 현실 적 요구를 담아 사실을 자의적이며 배타적으로 이해하려는 것은 우리에게 아무런 도움이 되지 않고, 자칫하면 역사라는 이름으로 포장된 신념으로 변질되어 현실사회의 각종 모순을 희석하기 위한 도구로 악용될 우려도 있다. The ‘North-East’ region in China was constantly separated place from ‘central dis¬tricts of China’ in history, in which developed an unique culture. Especially, the Hong¬shan Culture, which prospered in the period of the New Stone Age around Liaoxi, is widely known for its large scale of Stone mound tomb, unique form of earthenware and jadeware. The Hongshan Culture developed around the Daling River and Siramoren River in Liaoxi region for 1500 years before and after B.C. 4000. The Hongshan Culture was a type of the culture of late New Stone Age, which produced polished jadeware and constructed distinct Stone mound tombs based on the mixed economy of hunting and agriculture. In this culture, a complex society was emerged based on primitive be¬lief. The unique reason and its technical achievement in Hongshan Culture were con¬verged in local cultural tradition, and this cultural tradition influenced on the wider re¬gion as well as Liaoxi region. In this sense, the understanding of Hongshan Culture was a useful and interesting task for study of prehistoric archaeology in East Asia. Since 1980’s, many scholars thought that this Hongshan Culture had the various of signs, which informed the emergence of civilization, so this culture is regarded as a starting point of Chinese ‘civilization’. This point of view is widely accepted by the policy support of government which sought to embrace the region of frontier in the mold of China under the banner of plurality and unity in the configuration of the Chinese nation, and by the nationalist awareness which inspire the national pride stressing a long civili¬zation of a 5,000-years-old history. Meanwhile, some Korean scholars assert that the Hongshan Culture is subsumed under the Korean history based on the ground that the Tomb Structure of Gojoseon state succeed the Stone Mound Tomb of Hongshan Culture and the bear used in the ceremonial jadeware of Hongshan Culure for ornamental pur¬poses. This debate over the character of Hongshan Culture concentrated on the unaca¬demic discussion in who was the successor of culture rather than the understanding of this culture. The emergence of civilization, which was tried to prove with Hongshan culture, was based on insufficient evidence. The society of Hongshan culture was not enough fully-fledged to make a state. The Huangdi King was a mythical figure who was held in high mythical esteem as a founder of state just in modern period, so it is a fiction that in¬vested the specific space and time and cultural true nature on him. The debate on whether the Hongshan Culture belong to Korea or China is also wasteful to extend un¬limitedly the point of view after the establishment of modern nation-state to the pre¬historic times. It is more useful that we try to understand the Hongshan Culture more detailedly and accurately and from this, grasp the development aspects of human cul¬ture in Northeast Asia in prehistoric times. It is not helpful for us that sought to under¬stand the Hongshan Culture thetically and exclusively including the realistic demand. If we are not careful, it would be exploited by instrument to dilute the real social contra¬diction with corrupt conviction wrapping the terms of history.

순록치기의 홍산문화(紅山文化) 감상법(鑑賞法) -유적, 유물과 문헌사료를 읽는 시각(視角)과 시력(視力)

周采赫 ( Chu Chae Hyok ) 배재대학교 한국-시베리아센터 2007 한국시베리아연구 Vol.11 No.2

While I have been doing exploratory field researches on nomadic history for 18 years, 1 have kept realizing that there is a serious pro Diem in the viewpoint of interpreting ancient documents by historians and in the analyses of ancient relics by archaeologists. Why should earthenware, ceramics, bronze ware, and iron ware be the absolute criteria for interpreting the historical developments in the Tundra, Taiga, and even the Steppes, just as those applied to agricultural social history? Nomadic production is characterized by an organization of small number of people living in a large area (廣)” with trained mobility, while agricultural production is characterized by an organization of “large number of people living in a small area” with trained and stabilized power. It is, therefore, natural to think that, in a nomadic life zone, wooden-ware, animal skin-ware or bone-ware were more effective than earthenware or ceramics as nomads needed mobility in a large space for a small number of members. Mass production of bronze ware or iron ware using molds probably would have been too difficult for them to form a market in such a nomadic life zone. In the open space with strong winds, whether on the steppe or in the ocean, I guess, it was natural for the stone culture to develop. The dolmen style burying culture developed for stone graves on low wetlands because they needed stone lids. On the cold plateau, on the other hand, stone lids were not needed. Instead, four-sided graves and stacks of stones were used for graves. Therefore, it might have been absurd to take the bronze ware or iron ware as the criteria for classifying a certain culture or region of a group. In that case, it might have blocked the communication between nomadic culture and agricultural culture zones in historic times and might have ruined the concept of a nomadic empire built on the combined basis of nomadic life style and agricultural fanning. I have pointed out that the main food of reindeer in the ice land Tundra or in the Taiga of long winters was lichen growing on the Soyon ( : small mountain). Since lichen comes out again 3-5 years after it has been grazed, though it varies slightly according to region, reindeer had to keep moving to new Soyons for the lichen and therefore, the reindeer shepherds chose the nomadic way of life. Lichen is a kind of moss which grows in damp shade. As more moisture makes more lichen to grow, reindeer shepherds tended to move from West Siberia to East Siberia near the Pacific Ocean, and from the steppes in South Russia to the Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean. So I named the migration route of the people the Lichen Road, of which significant parts seem to coincide with the Mongolian route. Based on the exploratory field research results I have made so far, I have thus assumed a migration route of a tribe among them, the Chosun (朝鮮) people, who later became the governing class of Koreans. According to oral records of native residents in Hulun and Buir, most of the Qori tribe whose legendary founder was born from a Burqan Rock at Lake Baikal in Olkhon Island, went northward along the Yenisei and Lena Rivers and did large-sized reindeer-herding as pastoral farming. Some of them went up along with the Rena River and went over the Stanovoi Mountains and came down along the Jeya River or Bureya River. Others directly passed over the Yabulnobi Mountains and advanced to the Henti Aimag or the Doronod Aimag, and eventually to the Hulun Buir Mongolian Steppes. They advanced to the Nun River and to the Mongolian Steppes. Those reindeer-herding nomads became horse-riding sheep-herding nomads with iron ware and advanced to the Mongolian steppes in full scale. Learning horse-riding archery from the Scythians, they seems to have built a nomadic empire. It appears that the former was the Manchu-line (Ye (藏)-line) tribe of Tungus-Evenki etc. in the lower damp lands and the latter was the Maek (貊)-line tribe of the plateau such as the Xiong Nu tribe or Qori稿 . The oral tradition of native residents in the wide Hulun Buir Mongolian Steppes as far as the Nun River prairie still clearly tell that it was from this area that the tribes were separated and advanced to the southwest and to the southeast. Therefore, we can assume that there were two main routes to the south for reindeer-herding nomads of Northeast Asia. One is the southward route along the Great Xing-An Mountains to the plateaus in West Liao. The other is along the Jeya River and the Nun River to Acheng (阿城)at the hillside of the Lesser Xing-An Mountains. The latter maintained more of the original, essential features of reindeer-herding, while the former became the core part of the stronger horse-riaing sheep-herding empire founders after their culture was combined with iron ware, innovating themselves repetitively. In fact, the Northeast nomadic empires gestated at the Baikal-Arctic Ocean zone and were born in Hongshan and Acheng. After each of them were settled in their own way, they developed in full scale in the Hulun Buir Mongolian Steppes by combining the Hongshan culture with the Acheng Culture and the culture matured fully at Khanbalik (currently Beijing). The core of the issue is after all the Hongshan Culture that substituted the reindeer-based placenta as the origin of the Chosun and the Goguryo. If the Xia Jia Dian (夏家店)Lower Culture was the product of a nomadic empire that had combined features of nomadic and agricultural culture based on the Mongolian Steppes, it was never the culture of horse-riding sheep-herding pastoral fanning that appeared in full scale after the Bronze and Iron Ages, which was commonly regarded as the Xia Jia Dian Upper Culture. It necessarily was nothing but the reindeer-herding pastoral culture that mainly formed based on Lake Baikal and the Arctic Ocean Zone after the Stone Age. Some Chinese Scholars have suggested the hypothesis that the Battle of Zhuolu (涿鹿之戰) occurred during the process of Chiwoo (蚩尤)’s power class of the Hongshan Culture advancing to the Midland (中原) at the Yanshan (燕山) Mountains, which is a very noteworthy viewpoint. In that case, the power class of the Chiwoo, the core subject of the Hongshan Culture, established the reindeer-herding nomadic empire that covered nomadic and agricultural farming as a combined entity of the Ye-line male otter and reindeer-herding shepherds in the damp lower lands and the Maek-line marten and reindeer-herding shepherds of the plateau. The power class was not at all related to the Han tribe or the semi-Han tribe that was the subject of the Hemudu (河姆渡) Culture or the Yangshao (仰韶) Culture. According to the reports by Prof. Alexchef Anatoli of the History Department at Yakutsk National University, there were no otters or martens in the Arctic Ocean Zone of the Saha region, which was the stronghold for reindeer-herding. Thus, these are the issues that are based on the Ye, Maek, and Yemaek nation occurring, developing, and continuing on the basis of the Hulun Buir-Pacific zone that is, the Great Manchu zone. However, this West Liao is a dry plateau of the Mongolian Steppes and the grass there is stiff and tough unlike that in the East Liao. Even if we considered the changes in the ecological system over time and assumed that trees might have grown there, the forest was not like that of East Liao but was more probably closer to the Taiga. Prof. Erden Baatar, a Mongolian historian at the University of Inner Mongolia, confirmed that Xinglongwa (興隆洼) relics of the oldest group residential town in China (華夏第一村) during the Stone Age or the Chihai (査海) relics in which the first dragon (中華第一龍) was found, all existed on the Mongolian Steppes. In fact, only the Mongoloid lived on this land during the Kangxi period (1662-1722) until the ― Han tribe farmers were permitted to enter for farming there. Then, is the origin of the Han tribe or the origin of the dragon, which is the symbol of the Han Culture, related to the Mongoloid and its culture? The so-called China's Northeast Project contains such self-contradiction in recognition of their history by the Chinese people themselves. The Chinese historic imperialistic invasion of Mongolia and Manchu is ending up by self inviting the result of being assimilated to the long and gigantic history of the Mongoloid. I want to classify the nomadic cultures in time and space more specifically into the Reindeer-Herding Tribe Culture of Lake Baikal and the Arctic Ocean Zone, the Reindeer Nomadic Empire Culture of the Hongshan that comprised of the forest Tundra of the Taiga and the giant larch tree forest for combined nomadic farming; and the horse-riding sheep-herding Empire Culture of the Hulun Buir Mongolian Steppes that was built when the advanced reindeer-herding nomadic culture was combined with the making of iron ware. Throughout the Gobi region larch coals and fossils are being excavated on a grand scale. The famous Prof. Pei Wen-Chung (裵文中) found frozen soil action for the first time in Jalainor, Mongolian Steppes north of Xinganling, by which we assume that there have been frozen soil phenomena underground widely. By combining such information in diverse and profound ways, this study aims at avoiding wrong interpretations by considering all relics and inheritance, not only from the historical point of view of settled agriculture. Not necessarily taking biological evidence, the names of Chosun and Goguryo already represent the origin of the Scytho-Siberian reindeer-herding culture of the Korean people. As shown in the nation names of Chosun, Goguryo, and Mongol, they formed the basis of the Hongshan Culture, which seemed to be the peak of the reindeer-herding nomadic empire and in the process the reindeer shepherds developed into horse-riding shepherds on the Hulun Buir Mongolian Steppes. It would be ridiculous if we decided that the relics of Khanbalik of the 13^th-and 14^th centuries were the relics of an agricultural empire that we found later, just being deceived by the enormous value placed in quantity and quality of historical literature. The Mongolian Yuan Dynasty was a real nomadic empire built by a nomadic power comprising nomadic and farming culture that scarcely recorded their history in writing or remaining relics. The capital of the nomadic empire that comprised the pastoral and agricultural farming was located at the contact point of the steppes and the field for farming but gradually moved to the key area of the Steppes. It is so as for Beijing, Acheng, and Bagdad, too, of the capital city of the Seljuk Turkey in Mesopotamia. It is not exceptional that the Hongshan, of Chifeng (赤峰: Улaн xaaд), was located in the Mongolian Steppes. Hence, in oder to read the Hongshan Culture, we shall have to look into the relics and characters in documents beyond the visible surface of them in terms of nomadic historical points of view. It should be noted that, despite the fact that the Hongshan culture was far more advanced than the Yangshao or Hemudu Culture, it had a strong religious color in which religion and politics were united. This is because of the fact that Chosun and Goguryo were already conceived from the reindeer-herding placenta in the womb of the horse-riding sheep-herding culture which can be clearly distinguished from the Midland Culture. These designations themselves are eloquently proving the fact. Of course, the nations were equipped with the original features of an ancient nomadic empire comprising of nomadic and agricultural cultures, while they developed the horse-riding sheep-herding nomadic empires armed with iron ware. Publishing this paper with the theme Viewpoints and Vision for Reading the Hongshan Culture”, the author thought of a combination of small mountains, Soyon (鮮), with the Baekdu ranges. Even game animals were able to move between the Siberian Plateau and the Baekdu Ranges, depending on the ecological conditions of moisture and the food chain etc., so did the Chosun tribe of the Baekdu Ranges and the Chosun tribe who were the Scytho-Siberians. As guided by the substance of the Hongshan Culture and the possibility of its interpretation, at least the Chosun tribe can be understood in terms of an ecological occupational region, and not understandable in terms of China. Since they were the Chosun tribe who are the genetic entity historically designed in this way, they are considered to remain the same in future as well. Therefore, Russia and Korea, which stay together under the threat of a historical imperialism of China, should seek a way to deal with it together and I expect we can do so. Fortunately, on the foundation of world history where yellow and white races have lived mixed together over several hundred years by mutually exchanging rule and counter-rule relationship since the occupation and the rule of Russian homeland by the Mongolian in 1238,both countries have opened the possibility to do so with more active cooperative exchanges. Also, the Soyan (鮮) tribe, whose placenta was Mt. Sayan of Siberia, was historically linked with the Soyon (鮮) tribe of the Chosun. It has also been publicly recognized, as a result of gene comparisons, that the place of origin of the American Indians was Mt. Sayan in current Russia. Therefore, the two nations have reasons to take on cooperative actions in dealing with the historical relationship with America as well.

홍산문화론

김정열(Kim Jung-ryol) 한국고대사학회 2014 韓國古代史硏究 Vol.0 No.76

기원전 5000년기에 요하 일대에서 성립하여 발달하기 시작한 신석기문화의 한 유형, 紅山文化는 중국은 물론 우리 학계도 커다란 관심을 가지는 주제이다. 그것은 이 문화에서 형성된 거대한 규모의 유적과 독특한 형태의 유물이 세인의 주목을 끌기에 충분했을 뿐만 아니라, 이 문화에서 나타난 갖가지 문화 현상이 매우 흥미로우면서도 논쟁적인 성격을 가지고 있기 때문이다. 지금 홍산문화에 대한 지견은 매우 부족한 형편이다. 그럼에도 불구하고 중국학계에서, 특히 牛河梁 유적에서 발견된 대형 적석총, 여신묘 등의 대형 유구를 바탕으로 홍산문화가 이미 문명의 단계에 도달했다고 견해가 만연하고 있다. 게다가 일부 연구자는 이 문화가 황제와 그 부족이 창조한 것이며, 따라서 홍산문화는 ‘황제’로부터 시작되는 중국 문명의 원류가 된다고 주장하기도 한다. 한편 국내에서는 특히 유사역사학자를 중심으로 홍산문화는 황제가 아닌 고조선과 관련을 지니고 있으며, 따라서 홍산문화는 오히려 우리 민족사의 원류로 간주되어야 한다는 주장도 제기되어 있다. 홍산문화의 유적과 유물에서 관찰되는 일련의 현상이 과학적으로 정의된 문명의 그것에 부합되는지에 대해서는 의문의 여지가 있다. 그것은 홍산문화의 유적과 유물을 통해서 문명의 출현을 입증할 만한 증거를 구하기 어렵기 때문이다. 홍산문화에서 제사장을 정점으로 하여 형성된 사회구성원의 계층화가 진전되었을 뿐만 아니라, 취락 사이에서도 일정한 상호관계와 서열화가 진행되고 있었다는 사실을 인정한다 해도, 그 정도가 아직 문명의 탄생, 즉 국가의 출현을 의미하는 단계까지 도달했다고 볼 수 없다. 게다가 황제는 신화 속의 인물로서, 漢代 이후에야 중국인의 조상으로서 인격화되는 존재이며, 따라서 홍산문화와 황제와의 관계를 상정하는 것 역시 일종의 넌센스에 불과하다. 현재 중국학계에서 유행하는 홍산문화의 성격에 대한 주장은 사회적, 정치적 요구에 의해 선험적으로 정의되었으며 과도하게 포장된 혐의가 짙다. 그러므로 홍산문화에서 중국 최초의 문명과 황제의 흔적을 찾으려는 시도는 사실에 부합되지 않을 뿐만 아니라 학술적인 엄정성을 담보하고 있지도 않다. 홍산문화를 고조선과 연관시키려는 시도 역시 그와 같은 불합리성을 타산지석으로 삼아야 할 것이다. The Hongshan Culture紅山文化 is the main subject of academic circles of Korea, as well as of China, which is a type of neolith culture developed on the Liaohe river遼河 about 4000 B.C.. This is because not only dose the large scale of ruins built in this culture attracts public attention, but the variety of cultural phenomena in this culture has the character of interesting and disputatious. The knowledge of Hongshan Culture is today insufficient. Nevertheless, at the part of Chinese academic circles, it is widely accepted that the Hongshan Culture reached already at the level of civilization, on the ground of the Stone mound tomb and Goddess temple excavated in the ruins of Niuheliang site牛河梁遺址. Moreover, while some of scholars claimed that this culture was created by Yellow Emperor king黃帝 and his tribe, thereby that Chinese civilization originated in the Hongshan Culture, in Korea particularly around Pseudogistorian, it was argued that the Hongshan culture related with Gojoseon state古朝鮮, not Yellow Emperor king, so that the culture was rather regarded as the origin of Korean nation. However, it is doubtable whether the series of phenomena presented in remains and relics of Hongshan Culture would be accorded with the those of that civilization defined with scientific conceptions. Because through the remains and relics of Hongshan Culture it is difficult to collect the evidence enough to demonstrate rise of civilization. Although we admit the fact that in the Hongshan Culture the mutual relation and ranking among the Settlement was progressing, as well as the social stratification was advancing with the chief priest as the peak, it could not be seen at the level of the birth of civilization, that is, the emergence of state. Given the Huangdi King was the character in myth, and only after the Han漢 dynasty he could be personification as the ancestor of Chinese, to postulate the relation the Hongshan Culture with Yellow Emperor king do not make sense. The claims of current trends in Chinese academic circles of the character of Hongshan Culture are defined and exaggerated intuitively by the social and political needs. Therefore, the attempts to find the first civilization of China in the Hongshan Culture did not meet with the historical fact, as well as damaging the historical exactness. The claim also that could find the evidence of Gojoseon in the Hongshan Culture pay particular attention to prevent from repeating that irrationalism.

우하량 유적을 통해 본 홍산문화의 제사체계 형성과 변화

홍지혁(Hong Jihyeog) 동북아역사재단 2020 東北亞歷史論叢 Vol.- No.69

홍산문화는 기원전 4,500~3,000년경 중국 동북지방에서 등장했다. 홍산문화는 중국 동북지역에서 제사가 처음 등장했고 제사가 사회 시스템에서 중요한 역할을 했다는 측면에서 중요하다. 그러나 현재 홍산문화에 대한 연구는 홍산문화를 문명 혹은 국가로 정의하기 위한 수단으로서 제사를 바라보고 있다. 이 연구에서는 홍산문화 제사체계의 변화에 대해서 연구하고자 했다. 이를 위한 연구 대상으로 우하량 유적을 정했는데 우하량 유적의 경우, 유구 및 유물의 형태 변화가 층위별로 비교적 뚜렷하다. 따라서 유물 및 유구의 형식분류를 통해 제사체계를 구성하고 그 변화를 고찰할 수 있었다. 우하량 유적은 제사 유구의 등장 이전에 어떠한 인간의 점유 흔적도 확인되지 않는데 이는 우하량 유적이 철저하게 제사의 목적으로 만들어졌음을 시사한다. 그리고 시간의 흐름에 따라 유구 및 유물에 대한 비용이 증가하는데 이는 제사의 강화를 나타내며, 이후 홍산문화가 붕괴되면서 제사유적은 더 이상 등장하지 않는다. 이 연구에서는 물질문화의 변화를 조망함과 동시에 제사고고학적 개념을 도입하여 그 변화에 대입하고자 했다. 그리고 캐서린 벨의 개념을 고고학적으로 일부 수정하여 도입했는데, 그 결과 홍산문화의 제사가 강화될수록 제사의 특성이 새롭게 등장하거나 강화되는 양상을 확인할 수 있었다. 홍산문화는 정치적인 위계가 보이기 이전의 제사를 조망할 수 있다는 점에서 중요하다. 위계가 뚜렷하지 않은 홍산문화 사회에서 제사가 어떻게 사회통합 및 분리에 기여했는지 탐구할 수 있다면, 홍산문화 사회체계에 대한 이해도 보다 깊어질 수 있을 것이다. The Hongshan culture appeared in northeast China, around 4500-3000 BC. Since ritual was a key factor of the Hongshan culture society, understanding ritual and ritual system of the Hongshan culture is important to understand Hongshan culture. However, the current stream of research regarding the Hongshan culture looks at ritual as a way to define Hongshan culture as a civilization or state. The purpose of this study is to investigate the changes in the ritual system of Hongshan culture. The Niuheliang ritual center is possible to organize the ritual system through the classification of structures and artifacts and to examine the change. The Niuheliang was only made for rituals. Also, as time passes, the cost of structure and artifacts increases, which indicates the strengthening of ritual. Finally, as Hongshan culture collapses, the ritual site of Niuheliang stopped to function. In this study, I introduce the concept of archeology of ritual and apply this concept when investigating the change of material culture. For this purpose, I used a partially modified concept of Catherine Bell to assess archaeological material culture. As a result, I confirmed that as the ritual of the Hongshan culture transforms, new characteristics of the ritual appear and such characteristics strengthen. Hongshan culture is important since it shows rituals precedenting the political hierarchies. By exploring how ritual contributed to social integration and separation in Hongshan culture society, of which the hierarchy is unobserved, this study contributes to deepen our understanding of the Hongshan culture social system.

홍산문화의 복식유물과 고조선 복식의 지속성

朴仙姬(Park, Sun-Hee) 백산학회 2010 白山學報 Vol.- No.87

A huge quantity of jade ornaments was unearthed in Hongshan culture. Jade ornaments are carvings in realistic forms of human, animal, plant, insect in nature or abstract animal forms, impractical production tools, etc. and they represent the will to mold with vitality, pursued by the inhabitants, quite well. All jade ornaments produced since early Neolithic Age in Korean Peninsula and Manchuria are not only made from jade produced in Xiuyan but also lasts as Gojoseon dressing culture in the similar style generally found in Hongshan culture. As a good example, the topknot-covering jade ornament unearthed in the Niuheliang tomb of Hongshan culture is the original form of jeolpung, a topknot-covering cap widely used in Gojoseon. Arriving at Proto-Three Kingdoms and Three Kingdoms Era, the jeolpung came to be used throughout Buyeo, Goguryo, Silla, Baekje, Gaya, etc., and it is confirmed by numerous artifacts ranging from official caps seen in murals of old tombs to golden crowns, clay figurines, masks, etc. The basic style of the Korean official caps can have its substance and identity seen in a new light from the tradition of Gojoseon culture originating from the Hongshan culture. In the ruins of Hongshan culture, jade spindle wheels and a huge quantity of spindle wheels of various sizes have been unearthed. The important thing is that a spindle wheel of same style and material as the ones unearthed in Hongshan culture was unearthed in the Upper Xiajiadian ruins. From the characteristics of spindle wheel, we can see that the Hongshan culture developed into Lower Xiajiadian culture, which in turn developed into Upper Xiajiadian culture, a violin-shaped dagger culture of Gojoseon. In the Niuheliang ruins of the late Hongshan culture, a large number of elaborate jade buttons were unearthed. Actually the developmental phases of ornamental buttons universally appear in Korean Peninsula and Manchuria since the Neolithic Age as textile productions develop accompanying various ornamental techniques. This is a contrast to the fact that ornamental buttons are rarely found in Neolithic cultural ruins at Huang He (Yellow River) drainage basin in China. In the clothing and accessories of Ancient Koreans, ornamental techniques took up a huge part. Ornamental techniques formed individual beauty through difference in sizes, styles, and directions of geometric lines. As such, the dressing style with unique ornamental techniques, weaving techniques, dyeing techniques, etc. combined with moderation originates from Hongshan culture, succeeded in Gojoseon afterwards to represent the identity by forming traditional techniques. In the course of overall character analysis in data on dressing, we can see in a new light that the Hongshan culture developed into Lower Xiajiadian culture belonging in the early Bronze Age in which Gojoseon appeared, which in turn developed into the Upper Xiajiadian culture, a Gojoseon violin-shaped dagger culture.

中国红山文化與濊貊民族的关联性硏究

최창원,배상목 중국어문학연구회 2018 중국어문학논집 Vol.0 No.108

The Hongshan Culture is an important Neolithic Culture in North China. It is named because it is found at Hongshan Mountain in Chifeng City, Inner Mongolia. It is mainly an agricultural culture. It occurred 5,000 or 6, 000 years ago and lasted for almost 2,000 years. The Hongshan Culture is considered one of the earliest historical ruins of ancient Chinese culture. Many of its remains and relics greatly influenced its nearby regions. Its cultural spirits and religious vestiges may exert impact on the later nations living here. Through the analysis of the relics of Hongshan Culture, such as the stone tombs, the porcelains with Zhi words, the copper sword in a pipa form, the copper sword of Liaoning style and the bird totem, we can draw a conclusion that the Hongshan Culture has similarities with the later Huimo Culture, which in some degree has a close connection with the ancient Korean culture. The Hongshan Culture is geographically near Korean peninsula, and in some degree influenced the form of ancient Korean culture. The author of this article makes a tentative discussion of the above phenomenon based on archaeological findings.

홍산문화와 중원 앙소문화의 관계 고찰

배현준(Bae Hyunjoon) 동북아역사재단 2021 東北亞歷史論叢 Vol.- No.74

중국고고학에서 홍산문화 단·묘·총 유적군의 발견은 기존의 ‘중원중심론’을 해체하는 계기가 되었으며, 이후 여러 다양한 지역문화를 평등하고 대등한 관점으로 바라보는 ‘구계유형론’, ‘중국상호작용권’과 같은 새로운 관점이 출현하도록 하였다. 물론 여러 지역문화의 다양성을 인정하면서도 중원지역의 역할을 중요시하는 복합적인 관점도 출현하도록 하였다. 그리고 이것이 현재까지 이어져 오는 ‘다원일체론’의 기본 바탕이 되었다. 다양하고 독립적이며, 때로는 중원지역보다 선진적인 문화를 가진 지역문화를 하나의 중국 안에 편입시키기 위해서는 각 지역을 연결할 수 있는 실체적 근거가 필요하다. 홍산문화의 경우, 중원 앙소문화 묘저구유형에서 유행하던 채도가 출현한다는 점에 착안하여 중원문화와 홍산문화를 직접적으로 연결하고, 이들이 교류하던 통로(Y형 문화대)를 당시 중국에서 문화의 교류와 충돌이 제일 활발한 용광로로 보기도 하였다. 그러나 채도 문양의 차이와 용도, 기반 문화와 사회적 성격의 차이는 공통점보다 차이점이 많으며, 채도의 교류 역시 홍산문화와 묘저구유형 양자의 직접적인 교류보다는 묘자구문화를 통한 간접적인 교류였을 가능성이 높다. 따라서 홍산문화와 중원지역의 신석기문화는 생각보다 긴밀한 관계를 갖지는 못한 것으로 보인다. 홍산문화를 중국문명의 일부로 여기는 근거는 묘저구유형의 채도와의 관계를 다소 과장하였기 때문이다. 채도에서 보이는 일부 유사성 외에는 고고학적 물질문화 및 사회 성격의 차이가 크다. In Chinese archaeology, the discovery of Hongshan culture promoted the disintegration of the ‘Central Plains Center Theory’, and the emergence of the ‘Regional System Theory’ and ‘Chinese Interaction Circle Theory’, which observed the cultures of each region without bias. Of course, there still existed theory emphasizing the importance of the Central Plains, while respecting the diversity of regional cultures. These theories finally became the ‘Diversity in Unity Theory’. In an attempt to put regional cultures, that are diverse, independent and sometimes more advanced than the Central Plains, in one China, evidences connecting them become necessary. For instance, popular painted pottery of Miaodigou type in the Yangshao culture of the Central Plains are also found in the Hongshan culture, implying a connection between the two. It would be considered that the Central Plains culture has a direct influence on the Hongshan culture, and the channel of communication between these is regarded as the most active cultural belt in China. But there exists the differences and functions of painted pottery patterns, in addition, basic culture and social characteristics have more differences than commonalities. And the communication of painted pottery is not the direct communication between the two, but the communication through Miaozigou type is more likely. Therefore, the basis for taking Hongshan culture as a part of Chinese civilization is not solid. The reason why the Hongshan culture is usually considered as part of Chinese civilization is because it exaggerates the relationship between painted pottery in Hongshan Culture and Miaodigou culture. In fact, apart from the few similarities that can be seen on painted pottery, there exists no common ground between the two cultures in either archaeological culture or social characteristics.

중국 요하문명론의 전개와 의미

조법종(Cho Bup-Jong) 고려사학회 2013 한국사학보 Vol.- No.51

Recently Chinese academics have started a claim that the origin of the Chinese civilizationthe began to Yellow River. They changed that the origin of Chinese civilization is not one, but Chinese civilization began in several places. Then, Liao civilization(遼河文明) of the oldest civilizations have been proposed. The heart of the Liao River civilization is a Hongshan culture(紅山文化) is a culture of the Neolithic. The archaeological site at Niuheliang(牛河梁) is a unique ritual complex associated with the Hongshan culture. Guo Da-shun see the Hongshan culture as an important stage of early Chinese civilization. And he said that Hongshan culture is believed to have exerted an influence on the development of early Chinese civilization and Manchulia. Especially Chinese excavators have discovered an underground temple complex -- which included an altar -- and also clay female head in Niuheliang. They assert that it is representation of Chinese original the ancestral temple of the royal family. Chinese scholar said that some part of Hongshan culture(紅山文化) and Liao civilization(遼河文明) were connected to Koean neolithic culture anmd bronze age culture. It means that from pre-historic age Chinese culture had influenced to Korean culture. Also Liao civilization assert that the Kitan(契丹) and the Manchurian(女眞族) is one of Chinese Nation. And so many relics of the civilization of the Liao River Valley exhibited in the Lianoning provincial museum. But Korean scholar thought quite the opposite. They said that the culture of Liaodung region is distinguished central china culture. So we must research the culture of Liaodung region and we must do our best to solve the problems which confront us now.

紅山文化 후기(BC 3500~2900) 해상 교류 初探

원중호 국립목포대학교 도서문화연구원 2022 島嶼文化 Vol.- No.60

Hongshan culture is an important “Archaeological culture(考古文化)” of the Neolithic Age in China. Hongshan cultural sites are widely distributed in the upper and middle reaches of Liaohe(辽河), Dalinghe(大凌河), The East and south of Inner Mongolia, The present South and North of Liaoning(辽宁), The north of Hebei(河北) and Jilin(吉林). The rapid change of living environment in the Neolithic Age of China also had a great impact on people's spiritual and cultural life at that time. Through the traces of communication with the "southern marine culture" confirmed in the funerary objects of the Hongshan Culture Nuheliang sacrificial site(=积石冢), this paper analyzes the direction and scope of communication between the residential power groups that made and used jades at that time. The characteristics of jade objects buried with the late Hongshan culture have been confirmed in the totem artifacts used in southern etiquette. The multiple religious features of the primitive religious society in Niuheliang site, and The complex society in prehistory have been confirmed through the living animal images. The skull deformation traces and beheading of the prime minister confirmed in the remains of the late corpse disposal of the Hongshan culture are the traces of changes in the custom of collective burial.This is the result of the free communication method centered on the waterway (river etc.) at that time. On this basis, The direction and scope of the sea exchange of jade users in Niuheliang site are re-examined.

러시아 고고학계의 홍산문화(紅山文化)와 동북아시아 신석기 연구

알킨 세르게이,조소은 경희대학교 인문학연구원 2016 인문학연구 Vol.0 No.31

The Hongshan Culture(紅山文化) confirmed culture development of North East Asia in the early neolithic age. The Hongshan Culture interacted with each other near the neolith culture. The characteristics of relics from the site of the Hongshan Culture are found in Long Egg Shape Earthenware(長卵形土器) and zigzag-pattern Pottery(之字形土器). An Study on the Interrelation of neolith cultures in North East Asia considers as the focal point of study on the Hongshan Culture. 홍산문화는 신석기 초기 단계에 이미 이 지역에 특정한 문화 발전을 이루었고, 다음 단계에 가서는 주변 문화와 상호작용하였다. 그 유물은 장란형토기에 구멍이나 之字文을 새겼다는 점이 특징적이다. 남만주의 신석기문화는 멀리 북쪽 아무르강 유역(보즈네세노프카 문화)과 연해주 남부지역(자이사노프카 문화)까지 확장되었다. 홍산문화 연구에서 가장 중요한 점은 그 문화의 형성에 주변지역과의 접촉이 중요한 역할을 했다는 점이다.