기업주의 도시 맨체스터의 로컬리티(1984-현재)

장세룡,류지석 대구사학회 2010 대구사학 Vol.100 No.-

Since the middle of the 20th century Manchester was affected by the economic crisis and decline by the diminition of population and the increase of unemployment rate. The Manchester local government of G. Stringer, leader of new urban left movement of Labor Party, adopted the entrepreneurial city policy with the support of City Council. It was estimated as one of the most successive neoliberalist urban planning in UK. This political option is considered as the submission to the neoliberal Thatcherism sacrificing the municipal socialism which emphasized the welfare service and economic strategy in the local, even though there is a certain policy continuity keeping the interventionism of local government. Under the slogans of “City Pride” and “City Challenge” Manchester City tried to become a host city of the Olympic Games and the Commonwealth Games. The urban regeneration and the renovation planning make an impressive changes in the city center and East Manchester. The process of the landmark building construction under the flagship project shows the operation system of the public-private partnership between the local government and the private enterprise groups. This ‘growth machine’ system is working by the ‘growth coalition’ taking initiative to get the boosterism for which the entrepreneurial politics permit the public-private partnership dominated by the local elites decisions. Manchester’s economic policy, derived from the recognition of the limits of economic sovereignty and independence, have the aim to regenerate the economic infrastructure of the city to make the capital and the labor market apt for the new localized conditions with the strong intervention of the nation-state. The change of employment structure increasing the service industry and female employment of irregular part-time job, diminished apparently the rate of unemployment. But it brings on the degradation and the destabilization of working condition in the city. The application of the ‘Urban Regime Theory’ accepting the premiss of the sharing the role of market and local government, to this case is relatively limited because there is no many cases of the entrepreneurial city project for which the local politicians or the members of City Council took the lead and the enterprisers or industrialists presented the agenda. However we think that the urban regime theory will give an reasonable explanation to the urban planning policy in Manchester if it is deepened and elaborated with the theoretical accuracy. We should point out the danger of social crisis resulted from social exclusion combined by the structural economic decline and the increase of poverty and the danger of the retrogression of democratic rules in the municipal administration dominated by local elites, if is taken notice only the successful aspects of the city entrepreneurialism encouraged by the growth oriented policies of the urban development. Manchester of the 21th century appears as a city of post-industrial society where the cosmopolitanism and the hybridity is generalized phenomenons but it is evident that the problem of unequality and the social split and conflict are also growing. The fact that Manchester City Council is turning attention to the sustainable development policies is a good proof of realization of such problems and of the efforts to find the solution.

"도시 혁신과 도시 기업가주의: 중국 슝안(雄安) 스마트 시티 사례 연구"

김민지,정유선 피터드러커 소사이어티 2022 창조와 혁신 Vol.15 No.4

Smart city aims to improve the quality of human life, by incorporating information and communication technology(ICT) into various urban infrastructures and services. In 2017, Xiong’an was designated as the 19th national new area by the current leader Xi Jinping, and is being built as a model smart city that represents China. In light of urban entrepreneurialism theory, this study has investigated how Xiong’an smart city is innovated, what factors make Xiong’an smart city's innovation distinctive, and what implications this case offers to relevant research. As research method, we have gathered news reports on the official website of Xiong’an, as well as major policy documents, and conducted qualitative analysis. We have confirmed three features of entrepreneurial city. That is, Xiong’an smart city is being innovated through innovative strategies to attract investment from the market sector, real and reflexive strategies, and presentation of entrepreneurial discourses. This study suggests that existing research on urban entrepreneurialism in China needs to pay attention to the entrepreneurial behavior of the central government as well as that of local governments. It also suggests that the active role and meaning of the large IT private enterprises need to be further explored. 스마트 시티는 정보통신기술(ICT)을 각종 도시 인프라와 서비스에 접목시켜 사람과 지역사회의 삶의 질을 향상시키는 것을 목표로 하는 개념이다. 2017년 시진핑 지도부에 의해 19번째 국가급 신구로 지정된 슝안신구는 중국을 대표하는 스마트 시티로 조성되고 있다. 본 연구는 도시 기업가주의 이론에 비추어 슝안 스마트 시티가 어떻게 혁신되는지, 슝안 스마트 시티 혁신에서 두드러지는 요소는 무엇이고, 이것의 연구 함의는 무엇인지를 파악하고자 하였다. 연구 방법으로는, 슝안 스마트 시티 관련 국내외 문헌자료, 슝안 공식 웹사이트 내 보도 자료, 그리고 주요 정책 문건들을 질적으로 분석하였다. 분석 결과, 슝안 스마트 시티는 투자 유치를 위한 혁신적인 전략, 현실적이고 상호적인 전략, 그리고 기업가적 담론 제시를 통해 혁신되고 있음을 발견하였다. 본 연구는 기존 중국 도시 기업가주의 연구가 줄곧 주목해 온 지방정부의 기업가적 행위뿐만 아니라 더 나아가 중앙정부의 기업가적 행위에 대해서도 주목할 필요가 있음을 제시한다. 아울러 대형 IT 민영기업의 활약과 그 의미를 모색할 필요가 있음을 시사한다.

중국 스마트 시티 건설을 둘러싼 지방정부-민영기업 간 협력 기제 -슝안(雄安) 스마트 시티 사례를 중심으로-

김민지,정유선 한중사회과학학회 2019 한중사회과학연구 Vol.17 No.2

It has recently become quite prominent that China’s smart city construction is backed up by cooperation between local governments and private enterprises. What lies behind this emerging local government - private enterprise partnership surrounding smart city construction? What implication does this phenomenon offer regarding politico-economic development in China? Through archival research, we first found the specific incentives that spurred constructing smart cities in China: raising efficiency in urban construction and promoting industrial restructuring. Then, we traced how these factors have induced cooperative mechanism between local governments and private enterprises. Through an empirical analysis on the case of smart city construction in Xiong’an, we ascertained the development of local government - private enterprise partnership. We also found out that, regardless of administrative level, the cooperation between local governments and private enterprises has become a common practice in smart city construction. Theoretically, such empirical analysis expands the discussion of “urban entrepreneurialism”. By suggesting the concept of “evolved urban entrepreneurialism”, we argue that smart city construction expands the role of private enterprises not only to solve existing problems from urbanization but also to move toward sustainable economic growth while overcoming challenges Chinese economy is currently facing. This study further sheds lights on our understanding of “authoritarian resilience” in that these seemingly neoliberal attempts that incorporate more market elements into the Chinese system is aimed to consolidate current authoritarianism.

‘량장쓰후’와 경관의 문화정치경제 ― 금융화 시대 중국의 ‘사회주의적’ 공간 생산

강내희,해영화 한국중국현대문학학회 2014 中國現代文學 Vol.0 No.71

This paper focuses on Liangjiang Sihu (Two Rivers and FourLakes), a theme park in Guilin, Guangxi Zhuang AutonomousRegion, analyzing it as a landscape space in order to understandthe nature of China's “socialist” production of space. Whilecontaining various historical relics, cultural heritages, and valuablenatural resources, the theme park no doubt demonstrates thecharacteristics of a built environment in the age of neoliberalism. Not only has it mobilized large financial capital for itsconstruction; it presents itself as an abstract space that reflects thelogics of neoliberal financialization, an “entrepreneurial city” whichcompetes with other similar places in China. Focusing on thesefeatures, this paper considers the construction of Liangjiang Sihuas a typical example of the globalization of Disneyland, of thelandscapification of natural resources, historico-cultural heritages,and rural lands ― a phenomenon that frequently occurs in today's global world. It understands this process as having to do withfinancialization, for the construction of Linagjiang Sihu has beenmade possible by a new development of “financial mediation.” Whatplays a prominent role in this process has been the “fourthcirculation” of capital, in which those cultural practices which usedto remain out of the reach of capital circulation, in particular theproduction of meaning that takes place in everyday life, have beencaptured by the logics of neoliberal accumulation. Based on acritical analysis of these phenomena, this paper concludes that theproduction of landscape spaces like Liangjiang Sihu indicates thatdespite its self-proclamation of being a socialist state, China hasnow succumbed to the rule of capitalist accumulation. In order tosupport this argument, it also attempts to analyze the way“cultural political economy” operates in Liangjang Sihu as alandscape space.

Theoretical Reflections on Cities and Regions in Global Market

류연택 한국도시지리학회 2012 한국도시지리학회지 Vol.15 No.1

This paper theoretically explores the features of cities and regions in global market in terms of (1) shift from managerialism to entrepreneurialism in urban governance, (2) place marketing (production of an urban image) and reality of entrepreneurial city, (3) competitive advantage, (4) flexible specialization, just-in-time systems, new localized geographies of production, and (5) global restructuring and local response. Cities are not spiritless pawns of globalization but actively mediate and carve out their own future by exploiting their comparative advantages on the basis of local cultural, social, and political characteristics. More emphasis should be laid on the importance of local context variables and local political processes which create differences in policy outcomes between cities. It is necessary to synthesize the restructuring both at the micro-scale level and at the macro-scale level in order to understand contemporary global restructuring. There is a possibility that the advent of an informational society can deepen the inequality of space. An important question facing geographers is what will happen to the places marginalized by the global network and technological revolutions.

글로벌 시장에서의 도시와 지역에 관한 이론적 고찰

류연택 ( Yeon Taek Ryu ) 한국도시지리학회 2012 한국도시지리학회지 Vol.15 No.1

This paper theoretically explores the features of cities and regions in global market in terms of (1) shift from managerialism to entrepreneurialism in urban governance, (2) place marketing (production of an urban image) and reality of entrepreneurial city, (3) competitive advantage, (4) flexible specialization, just-in-time systems, new localized geographies of production, and (5) global restructuring and local response. Cities are not spiritless pawns of globalization but actively mediate and carve out their own future by exploiting their comparative advantages on the basis of local cultural, social, and political characteristics. More emphasis should be laid on the importance of local context variables and local political processes which create differences in policy outcomes between cities. It is necessary to synthesize the restructuring both at the micro-scale level and at the macro-scale level in order to understand contemporary global restructuring. There is a possibility that the advent of an informational society can deepen the inequality of space. An important question facing geographers is what will happen to the places marginalized by the global network and technological revolutions.

스마트시티 거버넌스에 대한 비판적 고찰 : 중국의 스마트시티 정책을 사례로

이승욱(Lee, Seung-Ook),배덕현(Bae, Duk Hyun),김성온(Kim, Soungon) 한국공간환경학회 2019 공간과 사회 Vol.29 No.4

이 연구는 스마트시티 개발을 4차 산업혁명 시대의 새로운 성장동력이자 민주주의 고양으로 당연시하는 우리 사회의 지배적인 시선을 비판하고자 한다. 특히 스마트시티를 통해 투명한 거버넌스 체제를 구축하고 민주주의를 도시생활에서 실질적으로 실현할 수 있다는 기존의 담론에 문제를 제기함과 동시에, 오히려 스마트시티가 가져올 부정적인 정치적 영향에 주목하였다. 이를 위해 첫째, 스마트시티에서의 통치 문제, 즉 거버넌스 및 민주주의와 관련하여 스마트시티에 대한 서구의 비판적 논의를 고찰하고자 한다. 이러한 고찰을 통해 도시 기업가주의의 고착화, 기술통치체제(Technocracy)의 확장, 디지털 감시체제의 일상화 이상 세 가지 측면에서 스마트시티 거버넌스가 가지는 문제에 대해 주목하였다. 둘째, 중국의 스마트시티 정책들에 대한 분석을 통해 스마트시티의 확대가 단지 효율성, 편리성, 지속가능성, 시민들의 정치 참여 확장으로만 이어지는 것이 아니라, 오히려 민주주의에 대한 새로운 위협이 될 수 있음을 주장하고자 한다. 특히 중국의 현실에 대한 분석은 스마트시티를 정부의 전략적 목표로 선정하면서 각종 지원과 혜택을 약속하고 있는 우리 현실에 유의미한 성찰의 기회와 정책적 시사점을 제시할 수 있을 것이라 기대한다. This study aims to criticize the dominant vision in our society that a smart city will serve as a new growth engine and facilitate democracy in the era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. In particular, we question the existing discourses that smart cities will create a transparent governance system and substantially realize democracy in urban society, and pay attention to negative political impacts. For this, we review the western literature on smart city governance and democracy, and identify three problems in terms of smart city governance: consolidation of urban entrepreneurialism, expansion of technocracy, and routinization of digital surveillance. In addition, we examine China’s smart city policies as a case to specifically reveal these problems and claim that the expansion of smart cities will not lead to the enhancement of efficiency, convenience, sustainability and civil participation in politics but become a new threat to democracy. The critical examination of the Chinese case will provide us with a meaningful opportunity for reflection upon our reality to prioritize and privilege smart cities and promise a variety of benefits and support.

기업가적 스마트 시티 모델 비판 -IBM 스마터 시티 청주·제주 보고서 분석을 중심으로

홍성호(Hong Sungho) 한국공간환경학회 2017 공간과 사회 Vol.27 No.2

이 연구는 글로벌 IT 기업이 주도하는 스마트 시티 모델의 실체를 비판적으로 고찰하는 데에 목적이 있다. 주된 연구 방법은 IBM 스마터 시티 청주 보고서 및 제주 보고서 분석이다. 보고서를 통해 고찰한 IBM 스마터 시티 모델은 지역성과 괴리되어 있고, 기업이 보유한 기술 마케팅에 치중한다. 보고서의 권고안은 대체로 “사실상 지역 전문가의 인터뷰 의견 취합”에 불과하고, 부분적으로 IBM이 보 유하고 있는 대시보드 등의 도시 서비스 제품 빛 서비스 기술 도입을 권고하는 수준이다. 결과적으로 지역의 관계자들은 보고서를 통해 당면한 도시 문제의 해 결책에 대한 도움을 받을 수 없었고, 권고안의 여러 사업 가운데 어떠한 사업에 대해서도 추진 동력을 형성할 수 없었다. 위와 같은 IBM 보고서에 대한 비판은 기업가적 스마트 시티 조성모델을 경계할 필요가 있다는 점을 시사한다. 지방정 부는 무비판적으로 기술기업에 의존할 것이 아니라 지역 생태계에 기초하여 주도 권을 가지고 이들을 활용하는 방식으로 접근해야 한다. The purpose of this study is to critically analyze the smart city model led by global IT firms. The main study method is content analysis of the Cheongju report and Jeju report drawn from IBM Smarter City Challenge Program. According to the analysis on the reports, IBM Smart City Model is divorced from locality and focuses on the technology marketing of a firm. The most of the recommendation in the reports is just “collection of interviews with local experts”, and partially includes urban service products like IBM dashboard and the introduction of service technology. On balance, through the reports, those concerned locally failed to have any helps for solutions to pending urban issues, and any drive force for any projects recommended was not created. Therefore, the critique of the IBM reports indicates that it is necessary to keep caution against the entrepreneurial smart city development model led by IT firms with the cooperation of a local government. It is required for a local government to make use of them with its leadership on the basis of local ecosystem, rather than to be dependent on technology firms without criticism.

신자유주의적 도시화와 기업주의 도시 프로젝트

최병두 ( Byung Doo Choi ) 한국경제지리학회 2011 한국경제지리학회지 Vol.14 No.3

Despite the process of neoliberalization has made a decisive influence on our society as a whole, there seems little interests in neoliberal urbanization and entrepreneurial urban projects promoting it. This study is to see relationships between neolibealization process and recent urbanization and urban policies in terms of entrepreneurial city mediating them. In particular, this paper tries to reconceptualize entrepreneurial city as corresponding to privatization and commodification, financialization, state redistribution, and management and manipulation of crises which Harvey(2005) suggests as four main features of neoliberalization process in general and ``accumulation by dispossession`` in particular, and to characterize it in terms of ``creative destruction`` and of ``entrepreneurial governance``. As examined in the later part of this paper, recent cases of these entrepreneurial urban projects in S. Korea include volatility of land and housing price in the Capital region and urban regeneration and newtown projects, project for free economic zones construction in Incheon and other 5 regions, project for SOC construction heavily relying on private investment, in particular project financing pursued nationwidely including Daegu, and project of urban cultural marketing to promote capital inflow tacitly as well as to enhance urban imagine explicitly.

한국과 중국의 도시외교: 한중 FTA 지방협력 시범지구 선정에 따른 인천과 웨이하이의 사례

조형진 서울대학교 국제학연구소 2019 국제지역연구 Vol.28 No.2

This study compares city diplomacy in Korea’s Incheon and China’s Weihai, which were selected as demonstration areas for local economic cooperation through the Korea-China FTA in 2015. Weihai is small in size compared to neighboring cities, excluded from the One Belt and One Road initiative and overly dependent on Korea in trade. However, Weihai was selected as the demonstration area by actively participating in the initial stage of the bidding. In comparison, Incheon was chosen in a top-down manner by the central ministries. After selection, Weihai continues to pursue a specific strategy of being incorporated into the national railway network by linking shipping and land transportation with Korea. Incheon also expanded its organization for Chinese affairs and pursued a variety of corresponding projects. However, almost all projects and strategy were centered around the head of the local government. Nor has the policy continuity been maintained by the replacement of mayors. The difference between the two cities shows that not only systemic factors of state level, but also the difference in local governance of Weihai’s entrepreneurial state and Incheon’s head-centered operation is important in city diplomacy. 전 세계적인 국가하위 행위자 외교의 부상에 따라 동북아시아에서도 도시외교가 양적으로 급성 장했다. 체제와 역사적 경로에 따라 동북아시아 각국의 도시외교는 상이한 방식으로 발전했다. 이 러한 배경 하에서 본 연구는 2015년 한중 자유무역협정을 통해 지방협력 시범지구로 선정된 한국 인천과 중국 웨이하이의 도시외교를 비교한다. 이웃한 도시들과 비교하여 규모가 작고, 일대일로로 부터의 소외되었으며, 한국에 대한 의존도가 높았던 웨이하이는 초기 단계부터 적극적으로 유치전 에 참가하여 시범지구로 선정되었다. 이와 비교하여 인천은 중앙정부의 주도 하에 하향식으로 선정 되었다. 웨이하이는 자신의 열세를 극복하기 위해 한국에 대한 의존도를 적극 활용하여 시범지구로 선정 되었을 뿐만 아니라, 주변 도시에 대한 우위를 확보하고 일대일로에 연결되기 위해 해운과 육운을 연계하여 국가철로망에 편입된다는 구체적인 전략을 추진하였다. 인천도 대중국 관련 부서를 확대 하고 다양한 중국 관련 사업을 추진했으나, 대규모의 일회성 행사와 열거식 사업이 위주가 되는 단 체장 중심의 한계가 나타났다. 또한 시장 교체로 정책의 지속성이 유지되지도 못했다. 두 도시의 차이는 국가 수준의 체제적 요인뿐만 아니라, 웨이하이의 기업가주의 정부와 인천의 단체장 중심 운영이라는 지방 거버넌스의 차이가 도시외교에 있어서 중요하다는 점을 보여준다.