가정폭력 사건에 대한 수사단계의 문제점과 효율적 대응방안

정현미 이화여자대학교 법학연구소 2017 법학논집 Vol.22 No.2

The overall investigation procedures of a domestic violence have been improved while some insufficient or wrong systems have been corrected and some necessary measured have been adopted as the Domestic Violence Special Act has been repeatedly revised for almost 20 years since it was enacted first. However, our responding measures against a domestic violence (DV) are not working effectively yet. While doing so, it can be considered that a certain level of outcome for protecting a victim has been accomplished compared to the past as some provisions for urgent temporary measures, victim protection order and one’s safety measures, etc, have been adopted additionally until now. But, it can be assumed that it is hard to be considered that such measures are some main functions of such a current act on special cases. Thus, there is gradually encouraged an argument that it is necessary to change the basic direction of an act on special cases rather than to amend it partially. The procedure of a punishment against a domestic violence must not been executed centered on the prosecution and the basic direction of the procedure must be changed to a police and court-oriented one in order to coincide with the characteristics of a domestic violence. And such a way of procedure is an international trend, too. From such an aspect, some authority must be endowed to the police clearly in order for the police to respond a domestic violence efficiently from the investigation stage. Since it can be considered that a temporary measure or an emergency temporary measure is a type of the police commands to be made for preventing or resolving an impending risk, the relevant act must be amended in order for the police to apply for an investigation to a court directly while excluding the involvement of the prosecution. Since it is specified that a domestic violence case is specially treated as a home protection case, it is not appropriate to make the prosecution to treat it under the central position in the same way as another kind of criminal case. In case of a domestic violence, basically it is more appropriate to solve a problem in the way of judge a case exceptionally by picking out some criminal contents while treating it as a protection case, but not as a criminal case. And in case that two purposes, that is, ‘Protection’ and ‘Victim Protection’ as suggested in the current laws are conflicted against each other, a victim protection must be preferred. However, actually two purposes can cause some confusion while an act is applied. Thus, it is considered that it is more proper to erase the provision on ‘Protection’ from the relevant laws. On the other hand, since the legal action procedures for a domestic violence must be different from other general ones for a criminal case while being considered the distinct characteristics of such a domestic violence, it is suggested that it is necessary to introduce and operate a home violence exclusive court from a long-term perspective. 가정폭력특례법이 제정된 후 거의 20년간 개정을 거듭하면서 필요한 조치를 도입하고 불충분하거나 잘못된 제도를 수정하여 전반적으로 처리절차가 개선되었지만, 우리 가정폭력범죄의 대응수단은 아직 그리 효율적으로 작동되지 못하고 있다. 그동안 긴급임시조치, 피해자보호명령제도, 신변안전조치 등이 추가적으로 도입되면서 과거에 비해 피해자보호에 어느 정도 성과를 이루고 있다고 볼 수 있으나, 그것이 현행 특례법의 주된 기능이라고 보기 어려운 측면이 있다. 이제는 부분적인 수정이 아니라 특례법의 전면적인 기본방향의 선회가 필요하다는 주장이 점차 힘을 얻고 있다. 가정폭력의 처리는 검찰 위주가 아니라, 경찰과 법원의 중심으로 방향을 선회하는 것이 가정폭력의 특성에 부합하며 국제적인 경향이기도 하다. 그런 점에서 경찰단계에서 가정폭력에 대해 효율적인 대처를 할 수 있도록 권한을 명백히 부여해야 한다. 임시조치나 긴급임시조치는 목전에 임박한 위험을 예방하고 해소하기 위해 발하는 경찰하명의 한 유형으로서 볼 수 있으므로 검사경유를 배제하고 경찰이 바로 법원에 신청할 수 있도록 개정해야 한다. 가정폭력사건의 처리는 보호사건으로 특별히 취급할 수 있도록 한 것이므로 일반 다른 범죄사건에 대한 수사처럼 검사로 하여금 중심적 지위에서 처리하도록 하는 것은 적절하지 않다. 가정폭력의 경우 기본적으로 형사사건이 아니라 보호사건으로 다루면서 예외적으로 형사사건으로 처리할 사건을 가려내는 방식이 문제해결을 위해 더 적절한 방식이다. 그리고 현행법에 제시된 ‘가정보호’와 ‘피해자보호’라는 두 가지 목적이 충돌되는 경우 피해자보호가 우선되어야 하는데, 두 가지 목적을 둠으로써 운영상 혼선을 초래할 수 있으므로 ‘가정보호’ 부분을 삭제하는 것이 적절하다. 그밖에 가정폭력사건의 특수성을 고려한 사법처리절차는 일반형사절차와 달라야 하므로 장기적으로는 가정폭력사건을 전담하는 전담법원을 도입하여 운영할 필요가 있다.

경찰의 가정폭력피해자 보호에 관한 법제도 연구

이영돈 숭실대학교 법학연구소 2019 法學論叢 Vol.44 No.-

tner against another in an intimate relationship such as marriage or within the family. Domestic violence can take many forms, including physical aggression or assault(hitting, kicking, biting, throwing objects, battery). Domestic violence historically has been viewed as a private family matter that need not involve the government or criminal justice. In the past, Domestic violence Policies have been focused on offenders and victims have not been protected properly. As a result, some of victims have been killed by aggressor in spite of police response. Now, the protection of victims should be the priority policy regarding domestic violence. Police response to domestic violence is very important to protect victims and prevent to commit a second offense. The aim of this study is to examine the legal system relating protection of domestic violence victims. First, the police authority to enter the domestic violence place without warrant should be amended in Domestic Violence Special Act. Second, the urgent temporary measures in Domestic Violence Special Act be amended to grant police authority more widely. Third, processes of police to deal with the domestic violence cases should be improved to decrease the ending the case on the scene without action on aggressor. Mandatory arrest policy that is adopted in America be introduced partly to prevent second domestic violence by the aggressor. Lastly, the legal basis regulating victim protection be enacted in Domestic Violence Special Act instead of National Police Agency Regulation. 가정폭력 문제를 해결하기 위한 가정폭력 특별법 제정 등 여러 시책에도 불구하고 가정폭력 신고건수는 증가하고 그 심각성은 더해가고 있다. 기존의 가정폭력에 대한 정책의 최우선 관심은 가해자의 처벌이었고 가정폭력 피해자의 보호는 소홀하였다. 그러나 이제는 가정폭력 피해자의 신변을 안전하게 보호하는 정책에 중점을 두어야 한다. 현행법상 가정폭력 피해자 안전을 위한 여러 보호 장치가 명문화되어 있으나 현실에서 피해자는 충분히 보호를 받지 못하고 있다. 본 연구에서는 경찰이 가정폭력 피해자를 안전하게 보호하기 위한 법제도의 현황과 문제점을 고찰하고 개선방안을 다음과 같이 제시하였다. 첫째, 가정폭력 현장에서 가해자가 경찰관의 현장진입을 거부할 때 강제출입의 법적 근거가 불명확하다. 이를 개선하기 위해서는 가정폭력피해자보호법상 영장없이 현장출입을 할 수 있다는 규정을 마련하거나 정당한 이유없이 출입을 방해하는 자에 대하여 벌금형을 선고할 수 있도록 개정하여야 한다. 둘째, 가정폭력 현장에서 피해자 보호를 위한 긴급임시조치의 실효성을 제고하기 위해서는 긴급임시조치의 종류에 유치장에의 유치를 추가하고, 긴급임시조치 위반에 대해서는 과태료가 아닌 벌금형을 규정하는 방안이 마련되어야 한다. 셋째, 가정폭력현장에서 피해자의 의사, 상습성 여부, 범죄혐의, 위험성 등을 종합적으로 고려한 가정폭력 유형별 사건처리 기준을 마련하여 현장종결을 최소화 하여야 한다. 마지막으로 가정폭력 피해자가 느끼는 불안감을 해소하고 추가적인 피해를 예방하기 위해서는 가정폭력피해자보호법 상 신변보호를 요청할 권리 및 세부 규정을 마련하여야 한다.

Tackling Domestic Violence in UK: Persistent Problems

최관 한국외국어대학교 국제지역연구센터 2009 International Area Studies Review Vol.12 No.1

Over the past three decades we have witnessed the public exposure of attitudes and academic discourse concerning the problem of domestic violence in the UK. It is evident from literature that domestic violence has been present throughout the history, yet changes to laws concerning the matter of domestic violence are quite a recent phenomenon. It can be argued that policies dealing with the problems of domestic violence have largely been unsuccessful, and have failed to protect victims of violence. In this context the purpose of this paper is to explore the reasons behind such recent exposure, and to answer why implemented policies and laws have largely failed. In this paper the literature, both past and present, on domestic violence and gender inequalities in the UK, has been considered for analysis and further presented to better cope with the problem of domestic violence. The paper has developed starting with addressing distinct but related aspects of the issue that is reflected in section I. The section II introduces the paper by highlighting what domestic violence consists of, followed by an introductory insight into each of the sections and discusses violence as a form of control over women and their lives, perpetuated by previous or present partners. SectionⅢ emphasises the importance of understanding of the victims, as each victim has h/her own distinct needs. SectionⅣ explores the role of the police, to find out how much protection is provided and what type of help is available. Finally paper is concluded with discussion and possible measure that should be taken into consideration to mitigate domestic violence. It is evident that patriarchal values and beliefs still exist in modern British society, leading to the failure of recent policy and the continuing of domestic disputes. Domestic violence is just one part of the existing inequalities between men and women. The subordination of women is socially constructed, and is reinforced continually, not only by the use of violence from their husbands, but also in other areas such as salary differences etc. which in turn has created an immutable patriarchal culture. Until the embedded attitudes are tackled, policies concerning the issue of domestic violence cannot be completely successful in tackling the problem.

가정폭력범죄 대응방안에 대한 재고찰

김혜정 ( Kim Hye-jeong ) 홍익대학교 법학연구소 2018 홍익법학 Vol.19 No.3

Domestic violence is not merely a violence, but a violent crime such as murder. Therefore, it is required to examine whether the current ‘Special Acts on Domestic Violence’ is effective for the prevention of domestic violence crime, especially the prevention of the risk of domestic violence leading to serious crimes such as murder. If you look at the response to domestic violence in Germany, Switzerland and Austria, it is our top priority to protect victims. In particular, the recent increase in the risk of developing domestic violence as a felony crime, such as murder, protects the victim by actively engaging in civil and early intervention to prevent the development of domestic violence as a felony. In the case of Germany, it recognizes that there is a limit to the criminal legal action, and it is evaluated that it is establishing domestic violence policy by civil legal action. Therefore, it is necessary to consider victim protection as the top priority of the response policy against domestic violence. It is necessary to review the viewpoint of responding to domestic violence focusing on victim protection through civil early intervention. If the result of attempted homicide by domestic violence crime occurs, it is necessary to actively and urgently protect the victim. Domestic violence that caused the result of attempted murder is not subject to protection, but it is necessary to include the murder of domestic violence crime in order to actively implement the protection measures for the victim. The current ‘Special Acts on Domestic Violence’ focuses primarily on physical violence and does not include economic violence, such as not giving a spouse a living allowance. Therefore, it is necessary to consider adding the contents of fulfillment of obligation to support or payment of a family allowance to victim protection order.

피해자 보호의 관점에서 본 가정폭력 대응과 경찰개입

정도희 홍익대학교 법학연구소 2018 홍익법학 Vol.19 No.1

In Korean society, domestic violence has been regarding as one of the "Greatest four evils". Recognition that domestic violence is not a problem in domestic society, but a problem in our society, has been established. But it is absurd that the " counterattack " of victim of domestic violence has not been justified. In the cases of domestic violence, the prosecutor chooses whether the cases are handled and treated as criminal cases or domestic protection cases. After investigation, police can express his opinion. Current act provide that “a judicial police officer shall visit the scene of domestic violence without delay if a domestic violence offense report is received” and “a judicial police officer who responds to a domestic violence offense may visit the reported scene of domestic violence to protect victims or visit relevant places to inspect relevant persons or ask them questions for investigation of such case” and “no domestic violence assailant shall obstruct the duties of a judicial police officer, such as rejecting on-site investigations by the judicial police officer”. A careful approach to police intervention is necessary. The current law provide the concepts and countermeasure of domestic violence. In this article, I reviews of the involvement of the police, and considers a few suggestions for improvement from the victim's perspective. 우리 사회에서 가정폭력은 이전 정권에서 4대악의 하나로 규정될 만큼 사회적 관심을받고 있다. 언론을 통하여 보도된 여러 사건을 통해 가정폭력(domestic violence)이 가정내의 문제가 아니라, 가정을 넘는 우리 사회의 문제라는 인식이 확립되었고, 이러한 분위기속에서 가정폭력 피해자가 가해자에게 한 “반격”이 정당방위로 인정되지 못하는 것은 불합리하다는 의견도 등장해왔다. 가정폭력범죄의 가해자 처벌은 마땅하다. 그럼에도 이로 인해 오히려 피해자에게 보복을 가하거나 추가적인 폭력을 행사할 가능성이 있기 때문에, 가정폭력사건에서 공권력이개입할 때 신중한 접근이 요구된다. 그렇기 때문에 다른 모든 범죄사건에서도 그러하겠지만 특히 가정폭력사건에서는 수사기관의 역할이 매우 중요하다. 현행법은 수사기관에게 독자적인 판단에 따른 선택권을 부여한다. 예컨대 현행법에 의하면 가정폭력범죄는 그 특수성이 고려되어 이에 대한 처분은 형벌과 보호처분 중에서 선택된다. 가정폭력사건이 형사사건화되어 형사절차에 맡겨지는지, 아니면 가정보호사건으로 처리되는지 여부의 선택이가능하며, 그 선택은 검사에게 맡겨져 있다. 경찰도 검사의 이러한 선택에 영향을 미칠 수 있는데, 경찰은 가정폭력범죄를 수사한 후 경찰에 송치할 때, 해당 사건을 가정보호사건으로 처리하는 것이 적절한지 의견을 낼 수 있다. 가정폭력사건에서 수사기관의 역할은 다른범죄사건에 비해 더욱 중요해보이고, 따라서 보다 조심스럽게 접근할 필요가 있다. 현행 가정폭력방지 및 피해자 보호 등에 관한 법률은 가정폭력사건이 발생했다는 신고가 있으면 경찰이 현장에 출동하여 출입하여 조사할 수 있는 근거를 규정하고 있다(제9조의4). 그런데 이러한 규정이 있음에도 경찰이 가정폭력사건에 개입하는 것은 다양한 논의를 가져온다. 특히 경찰이 출동하였는데 가해자나 피해자가 경찰의 출입을 거부했을 때 과연 경찰은 영장 없이 출입할 수 있는지 여부에 대해서도 의견은 나뉜다. 현행법은 가해자가경찰의 출입을 방해하면 과태료를 부과할 수 있음을 규정하고는 있지만, 영장 없는 출입은영장주의 위반이 아니냐는 지적이 나오고 있기도 한 상황이다. 이 글에서는 현행법상 가정폭력의 개념과, 가정폭력피해 현황 및 지원현황을 먼저 살피고, 시행되는 대응책을 검토하였다(Ⅱ). 뒤이어 가정폭력사건을 최초로 접하게 되는 경찰의임무와 개입에 대해 서술하고(Ⅲ), 피해자 보호의 관점에서 몇 가지 제안을 더하였다(Ⅳ).

가정폭력 피해여성이 지각하는 폭력에 대한 분석 - 성역할고정관념 매개효과를 중심으로 -

박근양 ( Park Keun Yang ),김익균 ( Kim Ik Gyun ) 한국사회복지경영학회 2016 사회복지경영연구 Vol.3 No.2

This study is to determine the levels of violence perceived by female victims of domestic violence and to explore the factors other than gender stereotype in multilateral aspects. To achieve this, a more fundamental means which maximizes the effectiveness through feminist approach to domestic violence and the changes to the domestic violence victim protection policies. For this study, women residing in domestic violence centers and women`s shelters in Seoul were surveyed for information and data from Apr. 15 to Jul. 22, 2016. Summary and discussions to the results of the study are as follows : First, the experience in domestic violence, in average, was 1.71 points. By subcategories, `negotiation` was 2.87, `psychological violence` was 1.75, `physical violence` was 1.29 and `injury` was 1.29. The minor differences in the average values between subcategories indicate that domestic violence usually exhibit in two or more forms. Second, when analyzed the difference between sociodemographic variables and domestic violence, level of education had significant difference with domestic violence. In other words, the lower the level of education, the more experience they had in domestic violence. Based on result of this study, the following can be suggested to prevent and eliminate domestic violence : 1. Studies on the relationship between gender stereotype and domestic violence must carry on; and 2. An objective and systematic evaluation system must be built for a more effective education on domestic violence and these research results must be verified to stop domestic violence.

한국의 가족문화: 가부장적(家父長的) 구조에서 가정폭력과 목회상담자의 역할

김태수 ( Tae Soo Kim ) 한국복음주의상담학회 2005 복음과 상담 Vol.5 No.-

According to a survey(June in 1999 - May in 2000) of domestic violence, 30 percent of married women who were (from) 15 to 64 years old experienced domestic violence within a year. In the survey the rate of spouse`s violence was 7.4%, children`s maltreatment was 24.7% and parents` maltreatment by their sons and daughters was 0.1%. According to the above statistical data, there are various types of domestic violence and weak persons such as woman and child are the victims of domestic violence. Through this thesis the writer dealt with the title of Korea`s family culture: domestic violence in the structure of patriarch and pastoral counseling role. To deal with this issue the writer showed general investigation from various angles. In the second chapter the writer dealt with the following issues: the definition and scope of domestic violence, the reason of domestic violence, the process and result of domestic violence and two case studies of domestic violence. In the third chapter the writer introduced various roles which a pastoral counselor can perform: counselor, healer, teacher, religious leader and so forth. In the part of conclusion the writer emphasized that the best way concerning domestic violence is to prevent it in advance. Because it is the best way for domestic violence not to be used. However, if domestic violence is employed, (pastoral) counselor can counsel the offender and victims of it, heal them mentally as well as physically, and teach them through not merely continuous education but also appropriate programs.

가정폭력에 대한 비판적 성찰: 젠더폭력 개념을 중심으로

양현아(Hyunah Yang) 한국가족법학회 2006 가족법연구 Vol.20 No.1

  This article intends to be a critical examination of the notion of "family violence" both explicitly and implicitly employed in the law. Particularly it introduces the idea of ‘gender violence’ that has been established in the international human rights discourse especially after Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women in 1993(hereafter Declaration). The article examines related international human rights norms such as Declaration, UN Model Legislation on Domestic Violence, and Report documented at UN Commission on Human Rights on the one hand. On the other hand, it analyzes the testimonies of the domestic violence victims. Methodologically, the former provides the legal and normative ground of this work, the latter the empirical and social ground.<BR>  After examination, the study reaches to the findings as follows: Firstly, domestic violence is not so much an individual deviance as social behavior based upon the family structure where the men and women, younger and older are hierarchically differently located. The ideology that it is always better keeping the family than being out of it is also critical. The domestic violence policy ought to correct family institution as well as family ideology in the society.<BR>  Secondly, the current law tends to treat the domestic violence as a violence merely occurred in the domestic setting. In other words, without pinning down the unique nature of domestic violence, domestic violence in the law only designates the ‘place’ of violence. Due to the legal, economical, and emotional respects of the family, domestic violence has the nature of continuity, complexity, and invisibility.<BR>  Thirdly, in relation to the second, it seems that ‘violence’ rather ‘domesticity’ has been mattered in the pre-existing statutes. Domestic violence has been almost solely regulated by the criminal codes in Korea. Other than the punishment by penal codes, there are many aspects that will be appropriately treated by the civil codes. Particularly, family law about divorce, custody, and division of property ought to accommodate domestic violence in its stipulations. Introduction of legal separation and economic support of the victim (and their family) will be the task for the future legislation of family law. It will not only have the reparative effects on victim but also, and more importantly, have the preventive effect against domestic violence.

가정폭력범죄 대응법률의 실효성 평가

정세종(Jung, Se-Jong) 한국공안행정학회 2018 한국공안행정학회보 Vol.27 No.2

본 연구는 우리사회에 가정폭력범죄의 심각성과 위험성이 널리 알려져 있고, 중앙정부, 지자체, 형사사법기관 등이 이를 방지 혹은 억제하기 위해서 적지 않은 노력을 기울이고 있음에도 불구하고 피해자가 살해되는 등 비극이 지속 되고 있다는 문제의식을 토대로 계획되었다. 연구자는 이와 같은 상황이 초래된 여러 원인 중의 하나로 현행 가정폭력 대응법률의 비현실성에 주목하였다. 따라서 지역경찰관 대상 실태조사를 통해서 현행 법제의 실효성을 평가하고 비판적 논의를 진행함으로써 궁극적으로 개선방안을 제시하고자 하였다. 지역경찰관들은 가정폭력이 취약시간대에 집중적으로 발생하고, 가해자 상당수가 음주상태이며, 주취, 성격차이, 경제문제 등이 유발요인으로 작용하고, 발생률과 재범률 모두 높다고 인식하고 있었다. 또한 36.58%가 응급조치의 실효성에 동의하고, 25.64%가 긴급임시조치 실효성에 만족하고 있었다. 결과적으로 지역경찰관들은 현행 법제의 실효성을 낮게 평가하고 있다고 예상할 수 있다. 실태조사를 토대로 도출한 정책적 제언을 정리하면 다음과 같다. 첫째, 응급조치의 법적 성격을 위험방지 조치로 정립하고, 경찰의 강제처분권한을 경찰관 직무집행법에 규정함으로써 경찰권 발동에 관한 법령을 단일화하고, 둘째, 긴급임시조치의 실효성을 확보하기 위해서 영국의 ‘가정폭력 보호통지’ 및 ‘가정폭력 보호명령’ 제도를 벤치마킹하며, 셋째, 가정보호사건제도를 폐지하고 형사절차와 민사절차로 단순화하며 이를 병행할 수 있는 체계를 구축하고, 넷째, 가정폭력 가해자에 대한 공동사용주거의 사용․수익·처분권을 제한하는 방법으로 피해자의 안정적인 주거권을 확보할 필요성이 크다 The purpose of this research is to evaluate the effectiveness of domestic violence laws in Korea by survey of police officer. After reviewing the survey, I conclude that current laws about domestic crime in Korea were not effective. In Korea, the Act on the Prevention of Domestic Violence and Protection, Etc. of Victims regulates that the State and a local government shall take measures to prevent domestic violence and to protect and support victims thereof such as ① investigation, research, education and publicity for the prevention of domestic violence, ②establishment and operation of protection facilities for victims and so on. And the Act on Special Cases Concerning the Punishment, Ect. of Crimes of Domestic Violence provides for special provisions on procedures for the criminal punishment of crimes of domestic violence. And this law regulates ①victim protection orders, ②emergency measures concerning crimes of domestic violence, ③protective disposition, ④urgent ad hoc measures, ect. I would like to point out the problem of current legislation as follows. First, current laws have less concentrate on protecting victims than regulating offenders. Second, urgent ad hoc measures have little effectiveness and a few juridical problems. Third, the protective dispositions on the criminal are not able to contribute to deter recidivism. The following items can be suggested as solutions and alternatives for the issues. First, it is needed to do benchmarking Domestic Violence Protection Notices and Domestic Violence Protection Orders in U.K.(Crime and Security Act, 2010). Second, it is need to make the victim protection measures more clear to avoid confusion by victims and law enforcement officers. Third, it is necessary to integrate the Punishment of Domestic Violence Act and the Prevention of Domestic Violence Act into a comprehensive whole.

가정폭력에 대한 회복적 사법의 접근

김재희(Kim Zaehee) 한국형사정책학회 2016 형사정책 Vol.28 No.3

The universal perception of domestic violence was that the instead of intervention of law, the family members should solve it among themselves. However, the idea that the police should respond to domestic violence passively has changed so that the police should respond active for the protection of the victims. Because of the facts that domestic violence is more continuous, repetitive, and concealing than other types of violence and children exposed to domestic violence inherit the violent tendency, domestic violence not only requires countermeasures on the violence itself, but also, cares for the victims along with the domestic violence offender. Together with such social perception changes, there are studies actively being conducted to establish countermeasures in the academic world as well. On the other hand, reinforcing criminal penalty on domestic violence may lead to breakup of family. These problems also bring concerns of encouraging the victim to conceal the crime in order to continue the marriage, in the danger of continued violence. Consequently, the victim continues to live with the offender; this leads to the continued exposure of danger, and may end up in a dilemma of threatening the victim’s safety. In order to prevent breakups of families and resolve conflicts between offenders and victims from the limitations of criminal justice, the restorative justice should be carefully applied to domestic violence. This study points out the limited problems of criminal justice while perceiving domestic violence as social issues, not domestic issues anymore, and seeks a plan to prevent family breakups and eradicate domestic violence by utilizing the advantages of restoration and healing of restorative justice as an alternative plan.