힌디어의 합성어

최종찬 한국외국어대학교 인도연구소 2013 남아시아연구 Vol.18 No.3

이 연구는 힌디어의 합성어의 형성 조건, 유형의 분류, 그리고 특성을 다룬다. 빠니니와 이후의 주석가들에 따르면 합성어를 형성하는 데 있어 필수조건은 구성요소 간의 사마르탸(s?marthya, ‘통사관계’)이다. 사마르탸는 에까르티바바(ek?rth?bh?va, ‘단일의미’) 또는 뱌뻭샤 바바(vyapek??bh?va, 상호기대)의 개념과 연결된다. 에까르티바바는 개별단어들의 의미가 부수적으로 되거나 사라지고 전체의 의미만 남게 되는 것 또는 개별들에 의해서는 표현될 수 없는 것을 함께 표현하는 것을 의미한다. 이처럼 에까르티바바는 합성어와 직접 관련되는 개념으로 구성요소들이 문장에서 갖는 상호기대와 구별된다. 힌디어의 합성어 분류는 전반적으로 산스끄리뜨어 문법의 체계를 따른다. 주요 합성어의 유형으로는 아뱌이바바(avyay?bh?va, 부사어 합성어), 따뜨뿌루샤(tatpuru?a, 한정합성어), 드완드와(dvandva, 연결합성어), 바후브리히(bahuvr?hi, 소유합성어) 등이 있으며 이와 같은 분류는 구성요소간의 의미관계를 중심으로 한 것이다. 힌디어 문법은 이와 같은 분류를 따르거나 또는 분류된 유형의 개념을 그대로 적용하는 경향을 보인다. 이와 관련하여 힌디어 합성어 분류에 문제점이 제기된다. 우선 바후브리히는 융합합성어에 해당하지만 후자에 해당하는 모든 경우의 합성어들을 포함하지 못한다. 이에 따라 드완드와로 분류되는 일부 합성어들이 융합합성어에 참여한다. 그러나 드완드와는 내심구조를 갖는 합성어로서 외심구조를 갖는 융합합성어와 충돌한다. 이처럼 합성어 분류에서 의미기준과 통사기준이 혼합되어 있어 부분적으로 혼란이 일어나고 있다. 다른 한편으로 반복어를 합성어의 관점에서 다루는 심층적 연구가 아직 이루어지지 않았다. 반복어는 그 형태와 의미를 고려해 볼 때 아직 숙어의 수준에 머무르는 것에서 온전히 합성어의 조건을 충족시키는 것에 이르기까지 스펙트럼을 보여준다. This study analyses the concept of s?marthya ‘syntactic relation’, the necessary condition for forming compounds. It also deals with classification and characteristics of Hindi compounds. P??ini’s idea of s?marthya was interpreted as either ek?rth?bh?va ‘semantic unity’ or vyapek??bh?va ‘mutual expectancy’ by Sanskrit grammarians. It is called ek?rth?bh?va where the meaning of the individual words (of the compound) has been subsidiary or it has been lost altogether, or the words are rendered useless by the main object expressed as a whole, or they express altogether different things inexpressible by them individually. ek?rth?bh?va is expressed in a compound form whereas vyapek?abh?va of words in a sentence. Hindi grammarians have tended to classify Hindi compounds according to the Sanskrit grammatical tradition. There are avyay?bh?va ‘adverbial compounds’, tatpuru?a ‘determinative compounds’, dvandva ‘coordinative compounds’ and bahuvr?hi ‘possessive compounds’ among others. Those categories are classified on the basis of the semantic relation between the compound elements. Regarding those categories, there arise some problems with Hindi compounds. Bahuvr?hi is categorized as the one and only exocentric compound in Hindi, but it does not cover all the compound words which should be categorized as an exocentric compound. Some compounds belonging to dvandva, an endocentric compound, are used to denote the meaning of something other than its own constituents. In this way types of compounds in Hindi seem to be classified by applying both semantic and syntactic criteria at the same level, which resulted in confusion. In addition, reiterative words in Hindi have not been fully studied in terms of compounds. Some reiterative words show characteristics of a compound and others show those of an idiomatic expression, covering both ends of the spectrum.

Compounding in Korean

Weon-Don Jeong(정원돈) 한국중원언어학회 2010 언어학연구 Vol.0 No.18

This paper deals with compounding in Korean. Compounds are regarded as the combinations of words. In Korean, however, a root or a stem can be involved in compounding formation. As in other languages, compounds in Korean have the binary structure and the head. Most compounds can be analyzed as the binary structure with hierarchy. The head in compounds occurs on the right-hand element. Compounds inherit most of syntactic and semantic information from the head. Moreover, the head determines the properties of compounds. Compounds in Korean are classified into a noun compound, a verb compound, an adverb compound, and a postposition compound. We can find a number of noun and verb compounds. But there are a small number of adverb and postposition compounds. We can divide compounds into sub-compound and co-compound in terms of the head relationship. It is difficult to distinguish compounds from phrases because they consist of words. In order to make a distinction between compound and phrase, we mention phonological, syntactic, and semantic criteria.

합성어의 형성 원리— ‘선술’형, ‘섞어찌개’형 합성어를 중심으로 -

송재목 사단법인 한국언어학회 2022 언어학 Vol.- No.93

This paper examines word-formation rules of Korean compounds composed of a verb and a noun. In a V-N or N-V compound, the noun usually corresponds to the verb’s argument or adjunct. It has been pointed out in previous studies that ‘subject + transitive verb’ compounds are hardly (if not impossible) allowed in synthetic compounds or N-V compound verbs, while ‘subject/adjunct + intransitive’ or ‘object/adjunct + transitive’ compounds are often found. This paper claims that such restriction is not limited to synthetic compounds or N-V compound verbs but is a general restriction that applies to all types of V-N or N-V compounds in Korean. There are, however, two types of V-N compounds in Korean whose noun components are not in the relation of argument or adjunct to the verb components: senswul-type and sekkeccikae-type compounds. In both types of compounds, we cannot establish an argument or adjunct relationship between the verb and the noun. It seems that they are not constituents of the same clause but belong to two separate clauses in their syntactic and semantic counterparts. The verb is the predicate of the first clause and the noun is the object argument of the second clause. The verb component of senswul-type compounds is always intransitive and takes the adnominal suffix ‘-(u)n’, whereas that of sekkeccikae-type compounds can be either transitive or intransitive and takes the connective suffix –e or -(e)se. Such combination of a verb and a noun is not possible in a syntactic construction. Their existence clearly shows that morphological structures and rules are different from syntactic ones in Korean.

Compounding in Korean

정원돈 한국중원언어학회 2010 언어학연구 Vol.0 No.18

This paper deals with compounding in Korean. Compounds are regarded as the combinations of words. In Korean, however, a root or a stem can be involved in compounding formation. As in other languages, compounds in Korean have the binary structure and the head. Most compounds can be analyzed as the binary structure with hierarchy. The head in compounds occurs on the right-hand element. Compounds inherit most of syntactic and semantic information from the head. Moreover, the head determines the properties of compounds. Compounds in Korean are classified into a noun compound, a verb compound, an adverb compound, and a postposition compound. We can find a number of noun and verb compounds. But there are a small number of adverb and postposition compounds. We can divide compounds into sub-compound and co-compound in terms of the head relationship. It is difficult to distinguish compounds from phrases because they consist of words. In order to make a distinction between compound and phrase, we mention phonological, syntactic, and semantic criteria.

The use of context vectors in determining Thai compounds

( Wirote Aroonmanakun ) 경희대학교 언어연구소 2015 언어연구 Vol.32 No.1

In this paper we first discuss the problem of identifying compound words in Thai. It will be shown that the structures of compound words are often identical to the structure of phrases or sentences. Determining whether a sequence of words is a compound or a phrase or a sentence has to be determined within the context in which it occurs. Therefore, there is no clear cut way of determining the boundary of a compound. The longer the word sequence, the less likely it is that it will be considered a compound. In this study, we focus on extracting compound words consisting of two words from a large corpus using a vector space model. The basic assumption is that the context in which a compound occurs should be different from the context in which its parts occur. Two experiments were conducted on known compounds and on general bigram words. The test on known compounds was to verify that the cosine similarity of the context vector clearly indicates the differences of context vectors between the compound and its parts. The test on general bigram words was to further verify that the cosine similarity of context vectors between a non-compound bigram and its parts is different from that found in known compounds. When applying the cosine similarity of context vectors to compound candidates which have been extracted from a large corpus and ranked by statistics of collocation, we can determine a compound correctly with the F-measure at 0.81. The results indicate that the cosine similarity of context vectors is useful for determining a compound in Thai. (Chulalongkorn University)

완전 중첩 복합어의 분류와 형성- 의성의태어를 중심으로 -

정철주 ( Jeong Chul-ju ) 대구가톨릭대학교 인문과학연구소 2016 인문과학연구 Vol.0 No.29

Korean compound words has a repetition compound word and classified it under standard repetion compound and pseudo repetition compound. Most of the pseudo repetition compound are symbolic words(onomatopoeia). Pseudo repetition compound are total reduplication involves copying of the entire base. An important idea to bear in our minds is that reduplication is a mechanism of deriving new lexemes in natural languages. This happens because segments(reduplicants), whether complete or partial reduplication, become part and parcel of the roots to which they are attached. The kind of reduplication called full copy refers to the process which copies the entire base-word and repeats it fully. Total reduplication compound can be classify into a Verbal root reduplication compound, Adjective root reduplication compound, Adverbial reduplication compound, Pseudo-reduplication compound. Verbal root reduplication compound called full copy refers to the process which copies the entire base-word reduplicate it fully. Base- word is detached from the verb which affix(-거리-) added. Adjective root reduplication compound are reduplicated base detached from the adjective which root and affix (-하다) added. Adverbial reduplication compound are made from the reduplicate of the adverbs. Pseudo-reduplication compound are a kind of doubling of a limited set of materals from the base. In fact they lack their base. A total reduplication compound construction has two daughters that are featurally identical. A number of construction require semantic identity, sematic similarity. With verb roots, adjective roots, adverbs reduplication compound may be used to denote a number of things such as number (plurality, distribution), tense, aspect(continued or repeated occurrence), intensity.

Non-Synthetic Compounding in Sakha

Nadezhda Vinokurova 한국알타이학회 2020 알타이학보 Vol.0 No.30

This paper considers the nature of compounding in Sakha (Yakut), a Turkic language spoken in north-eastern Siberia (Russian Federation), and provides both descriptive and theoretical grounds for classifying nominal compounds in Sakha. The focus of the study is on primary compounds and therefore synthetic, deverbal compounds are left out of consideration. Arguments are offered for a mixed classification of nominal compounds in Sakha based on both semantic and formal features. The main reason for the necessity of a mixed approach lies in the discrepancy between semantic and formal characteristics of a compound. Although a compound can be endocentric (having a head) from a formal point of view, it can nevertheless be exocentric (without a head) on semantic grounds. The following three types of nominal compounds will be distinguished – root compounds, possessive compounds and dvandva compounds. It will be argued that even though a compound has a complex syntactic makeup consisting of more than one word, nevertheless it functions as a single lexeme/word and also denotes as such.

은유적 계사 합성어에 대한 개념적 혼성 분석

김동환 미래영어영문학회 2014 영어영문학 Vol.19 No.2

The purpose of this paper is to consider how meanings of metaphorical compounds, especially metaphorical copulative compounds are constructed through the mechanism of conceptual blending. It is usually said that the constituent components of a compound are usually combined to have its literal meaning. However, there are compounds that do not necessarily succumb to the compositionality principle. To a large degree, these compounds are called figurative compounds, which are divided into metaphorical and metonymic compounds. In this paper, I have managed to identify four types of metaphorical compounds by examining in the ways conceptual metaphor acts upon noun-noun compounds in English: (1) metaphorical compounds where the modifier is metaphorical; (2) metaphorical compounds where the head is metaphorical; (3) metaphorical compounds where both the modifier and the head are metaphorical; (4) metaphorical compounds where the relation between the two constituents is metaphorical. Of these four types of metaphorical compounds, I specifically analyze the meaning construction of the forth type of metaphorical compounds, which is called metaphorical copulative compound in my own terms, based on the mechanism of conceptual blending.

Wear Particulate Matters and Physical Properties of Silica filled ENR/BR Tread Compounds according to the BR Contents

( Gyeongchan Ryu ),( Donghyuk Kim ),( Sanghoon Song ),( Hyun Hee Lee ),( Jin Uk Ha ),( Wonho Kim ) 한국고무학회 2021 엘라스토머 및 콤포지트 Vol.56 No.4

The demand for truck bus radial (TBR) tires with enhanced fuel efficiency and wear resistance have grown in recent years. In addition, as the issue of particulate matter and air pollution increases, efforts are being made to reduce the generation of particulate matter. In this study, we investigated the effect of varying the content of butadiene rubber (BR) on the properties of the rubber compounds and the amount of particulate matter in the TBR tire tread compound. Furthermore, we utilized carbon black in the NR/BR blend compounds owing to its excellent compatibility, and we used silica in the ENR-25/BR blend compounds because it can interact chemically with epoxide groups. The NR/BR blend compounds and the ENR-25/BR blend compounds were evaluated by varying their BR content between 20 phr and 30 phr. The results showed that the ENR-25/BR blend compounds had superior wear resistance than the NR/BR blend compounds. This was caused by the interaction between silica and ENR. In addition, it was confirmed that the increased wear resistance as the BR content increased. Furthermore, compared to the NR/BR blend compounds, ENR-25/BR blend compounds exhibited a lower tan δ value at 60°C because silica was used as filler. This indicates a higher fuel efficiency. The measurement results for wear particulate matter showed that as increasing the BR content resulted in generation of less wear particulate matter. This was caused by the increased wear resistance. Moreover, the ENR-25/BR blend compounds with excellent filler-rubber interaction exhibited lower quantities of generated wear particulate matters as compared to the NR/BR blend compounds.

식물 약재 구성성분과 국내 약전 성분과의 비교 연구

김상균 ( Sang-kyun Kim ),이승호 ( Seungho Lee ),김안나 ( Anna Kim ) 대한본초학회 2016 大韓本草學會誌 Vol.31 No.5

Objective : TM-MC was constructed to provide information on the chemical compounds of medicinal plant materials which were listed in Korean, Chinese, and Japanese pharmacopoeias. The aim of this study was to compare of the chemical compounds of TM-MC with those of domestic pharmacopoeias. Methods : First of all, TM-MC was updated on medicinal materials and chemical compounds which were extracted from articles up to the PubMed identifier of 26 millions. After searching for medicinal plant materials with information on their major compounds in Korean pharmacopoeias, we identified that the information on medicinal materials and chemical compounds were also existed in TM-MC. Then, we figured out how much the compounds have been studied by counting the number of articles for those compounds in TM-MC. Results : Information on 9 medicinal materials and about 1,700 compounds was newly added to TM-MC after manually curating 645 articles. Korean pharmacopoeias contained a total of 91compounds from 53 medicinal plant materials, while TM-MC provided information on the 89 compounds from the 53 medicinal materials in Korean pharmacopoeias. The compounds stated in Korean pharmacopoeias has been much studied by comparison with other compounds of each medicinal material in TM-MC. Conclusion : Most of chemical compounds stated in Korean pharmacopoeias were also listed in TM-MC, excluding two compounds. Thus, we concluded that information in TM-MC is mostly consistent with that of Korean pharmacopoeias. In the future, we will periodically update TM-MC with articles added to the MEDLINE.