조선 15~17세기 수륙재(水陸齋)에 대한 유신(儒臣)의 기록과 시각 매체

정명희 국립문화재연구원 2020 헤리티지:역사와 과학 Vol.53 No.1

The Confucian ruling class of the Joseon Dynasty regarded Buddhist rituals as “dangerous festivals.” However, these Buddhist ceremonies facilitated transitions between phases of life from birth till death and strengthened communal unity through their joint practice of the rites. Ritual spaces were decorated with various utensils and objects that transformed them into wondrous arenas. Of these ornaments, Buddhist paintings served as the most effective visual medium for educating the common people. As an example, a painting of the Ten Kings of the Underworld ( siwangdo ) could be hung as a means to illustrate the Buddhist view of the afterlife, embedded in images not only inside a Buddhist temple hall, but in any space where a Buddhist ritual was being held. Demand for Buddhist paintings rose considerably with their use in ritual spaces. Nectar ritual paintings ( gamnodo ), including scenes of appeasement rites for the souls of the deceased, emphasized depictions of royal family members and their royal relatives. In Chinese paintings of the water and land ceremony ( suryukjae ), these figures referred to one of several sacred groups who invited deities to a ritual. However, in Korean paintings of a nectar ritual, the iconography symbolized the patronage of the royal court and underlined the historicity and tradition of nationally conducted water and land ceremonies. This royal patronage implied the social and governmental sanction of Buddhist rituals. By including depictions of royal family members and their royal relatives, Joseon Buddhist paintings highlighted this approval. The Joseon ruling class outwardly feared that Buddhist rituals might undermine observance of Confucian proprieties and lead to a corruption of public morals, since monks and laymen, men and women, and people of all ranks mingled within the ritual spaces. The concern of the ruling class was also closely related to the nature of festivals, which involved deviation from the routines of daily life and violation of taboos. Since visual media such as paintings were considered to hold a special power, some members of the ruling class attempted to exploit this power, while others were apprehensive of the risks they entailed. According to Joseon wangjo sillok (The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty), the Joseon royal court burned Buddhist paintings and ordered the arrest of those who created them, while emphasizing their dangers. It further announced that so many citizens were gathering in Buddhist ritual spaces that the capital city was being left vacant. However, this record also paradoxically suggests that Buddhist rituals were widely considered festivals that people should participate in. Buddhist rituals could not be easily suppressed since they performed important religious functions reflecting the phases of the human life cycle, and had no available Confucian replacements. Their festive nature, unifying communities, expanded significantly at the time. The nectar ritual paintings of the late Joseon period realistically delineated nectar rituals and depicted the troops of traveling actors and performers that began to emerge during the seventeenth century. Such Buddhist rituals for consoling souls who encountered an unfortunate death were held annually and evolved into festivals during which the Joseon people relieved their everyday fatigue and refreshed themselves. The process of adopting Buddhist rituals—regarded as “dangerous festivals” due to political suppression of Buddhism in the Confucian nation—as seasonal customs and communal feasts is well reflected in the changes made in Buddhist paintings. Keywords

현대 한국의 승려 예불 : 구조와 의미

김종명 불교학연구회 2006 불교학연구 Vol.14 No.-

Traditional scholarship has argued that "Daily Buddhist rituals function to solidify the identity of the monastic community" and "these rituals are none other than the representation of key Buddhist doctrines." Are these views always correct? The purpose of this paper is to critique such conventional ideas of daily Buddhist rituals by monks in contemporary Korea and attempt a new interpretation of the meaning of those rituals. To this end, this paper examines the structure and content of daily Buddhist rituals performed at T'ongdosa, the Buddha-jewel Monastery in Korea, focusing on an in-depth analysis of the spatial and temporal structure of the rituals and their functional, ideological, and practical meaning. This research led me to conclude that the structure and meaning of daily Buddhist rituals in Korea were different from common views. First, there is no solid evidence to support the contention that daily Buddhist rituals in Korea function to solidify the identity of monastic members. Moreover, it is difficult to observe that these rituals are outward expressions of key Buddhist doctrines. As a result, it appears that daily Buddhist rituals are actually a minor part of monastic life in Korea. Rather, those rituals in use are products of uncritical acceptance of the tradition. Therefore, a new pattern of daily Buddhist rituals that express the Buddha's teaching as a life education system is an urgent necessity.

한국 일상예불의 역사적 변용

김종명(Kim Jong-Myung) 불교학연구회 2007 불교학연구 Vol.18 No.-

  Extant materials manifest that Buddhist daily ritual experienced transformation throughout Korean history. In particular, it showed characteristic changes after the eighteenth century and in the 1930s and 1950s. Buddhist daily ritual, and by extension Buddhist ritual, still has limitations and remains for standardization in contemporary Korea. Distinctive characteristics of Korean Buddhist ritual were found through the process of its historical transformation. They were a profusion of esoteric elements in Buddhist ritual and its translation into the Korean language. It is also said that Buddhist ritual is the representation of the nature and ideology of a particular Buddhist order (송현주 1999: i). The recitation of mantras and the chanting of the Buddha"s name constitute the major content of Buddhist daily ritual in contemporary Korea. There is also no inherent connection among religion, belief, and ritual (Grimes 1990: 12). Therefore, research on the characteristics of Korean Buddhist daily ritual and their significance remains for future investigation.<BR>  Korean Seon (Zen) tradition has distinctive characteristics from many of the shibboleths concerning the nature of the Zen religious experience found in Western writing on the school (Buswell 1992: 215-23). Buddhist ritual is not a major concern of contemporary Zen monks in Korea (Buswell 1992: 38-9). However, the compilers of Buddhist ritual texts during the Joseon dynasty, including Hyujeong, were all monks primarily affiliated with the Zen school. Unlike in China (Sørensen 2006: 81), Zen monks in Korea had a keen interest in Buddhist ritual. Accordingly, an in-depth examination of the nature of Korean Zen Buddhism also appears to be a workable topic.<BR>  In addition, Kwon Sangno to a greater extent and Han Yongun and Yi Nunghwa to a lesser extent were directly involved with Ritual Codex for Buddhists. Therefore, their role in the publication of the text also remains for further discussion.

이동하는 불화; 조선 후기 불화의 의례적 기능

정명희 미술사와 시각문화학회 2011 미술사와 시각문화 Vol.10 No.-

같은 도상(圖像)의 불화도 어떤 공간에 걸려 어떤 의식에 사용되었는가에 따라 다른 기능을 지니는 현상에 착안하여 봉안 공간과 의식(儀式)의 관점에서 불화의 역할을 살펴보았다. 조선 후기 사찰의 주전각은 예배 공간으로서 뿐 아니라 의식 수행에 있어 다각적인 역할을 수행하였다. 불화 역시 의식 존상의 현존(現存)을 나타내는 매체로 적극적으로 사용되었고, 의식의 규모가 확장되어 중정(中庭)으로 확대된 경우 불화 역시 야외로 이동하였다. 의식이 기대하는 총체적인 목적에 있어 불화가 수행한 중심적인 기능을 고찰하는 것이 본 연구의 목적이다. Iconography is one of the main methodologies in the studies of Buddhist painting, since the visualization of the objects of worship is one of the fundamental functions of religious art. However, religious rituals have continued even in front of incorrect icons and devotional practices have been made even without knowledge of the exact Buddhist doctrines. Identical iconic paintings could be perceived differently according to where each of them is hung and how each is used. This is the very point where the necessity arises for understanding how the visualized object of worship is perceived rather than how the object of worship is visualized. Thus, the space and furnishings for the enshrinement of icons, and the ritual and devotional ceremony held in front of the icons provide a clue to understanding the perception of Buddhist artifacts. Buddhist paintings were actively produced in the late Joseon period to meet the religious demands caused by the popularity of Buddhist rituals among the general populace. As Joseon Buddhism lost national support that Goryeo Buddhism enjoyed and was increasingly challenged by Confucian ceremonial practices, the nature of patronage changed. The architectural structure of the entire monastery was also modified for the sake of easy performance of rituals instead of creating a special space for them. The central courtyard in front of the main hall was the primary stage for Buddhist rites. As the ritual function of Buddhist art became more and more emphasized, Buddhist paintings took an active part in ceremonies as a principal focus in addition to symbolizing the object of worship or representing the realms of various Buddhas. Focusing on the formal characteristics of Joseon Buddhist painting after the seventeenth century, this article explores the ritual function of Buddhist painting in both interior and exterior settings of monastic buildings. During the Joseon dynasty, there were some instances of Buddhist mural paintings, but the majority was in a scroll format. This was a response to the situation that required the construction of an exterior altar to perform rituals. Even though the scroll painting was a traditional format from antiquity, it was preferred for Buddhist painting in the late Joseon period due to the characteristic of its mobility. In addition to the specific ritual place, the ritual altar could be arranged in any place by setting up a platform and hanging a Buddhist painting suitable for the rite. Buddhist paintings enshrined in monastic halls were considered both static images hung on the interior walls and icons symbolizing the object of worship. However, the main hall of the Joseon Buddhist monastery was a very dynamic space. No specific ritual altar was set up inside the hall, but the "Three Altars (Samdan)," which had been used for outdoor rites such as the Water-Land Ritual (Suryukjae) and the Ritual for Preparatory Cultivation (Yesujae), were moved into the hall. Paintings related to Buddhist rituals such as Bodhisattvas of the Three Worlds (Samjang bosal-do), Bodhisattva of Earth Treasury [Ksitigarbha] (Jijang bosal-do), and Nectar Ritual paintings (Gamno-do) were displayed in the hall. These paintings were hung on the "Three Altars" that were brought into the hall and played an active role in personal funerary rites. The altarpiece of the Upper Altar (Sangdan) in the indoor altar was moved to the outdoor altar set up in the courtyard. Later, paintings hung exclusively for the outdoor rites were produced instead of moving the indoor paintings for the outdoor rituals. The emergence of large Buddhist paintings for rituals (gwaebul) is an interesting phenomenon caused by the emphasis on the ritual function of Buddhist painting and is thought to have been derived from the function of the previous massive icons for rituals. It is important to note that the purpose of ritual paintings is to make the devotees evoke the presence of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, as if the deities were present in front of their eyes. The liturgical session where Buddhas were invited to the altar space was particularly important in the ritual structure and procedure of Joseon Buddhism. Subsidiary devices such as other ritual procedures, ritual chanting and dancing, and ritual manuals all served to create this effect. The realization of the presence of Buddhas and bodhisattvas came to be attained in personal ritual practices through the worshipper's concentration on the icons. Meditational visualization was achieved in the collective ritual space. The presence of Buddhas and bodhisattvas who have descended from heaven is symbolized in the ceremonial event of the Invocation of Buddhas (Geobul), where each name of the invited deities is recited. Furthermore, the invited deities are vividly depicted in the ritual painting. The serial ritual procedures where the painting is moved to perform the ritual and is rolled up and put back to the original depository after the ritual epitomize the deities' journey down to the ritual space and back to their realms after attending the ceremony.

한국 불교의례에 관한 자료연구

황갑수 불교의례문화 연구소 2020 무형문화연구 Vol.0 No.1

This study aims to introduce research materials related to Korean Buddhist rituals by classifying them by specific themes. Through this, research achievements and research tendencies related to Buddhist rituals can be identified, which will be helpful in the research and research methods of Buddhist rituals. Additionally, it can serve as a basis for literature search or further research. This survey focuses on articles published in academic journals. The selection criteria for major researchers is based on the number of studies related to Buddhist rituals, citations, influence considering excellent writings, and the latest data. The data is first classified into four major subjects and several sub-themes under them. The four major themes are ① types of rituals. ② Rituals and Buddhist Thoughts. ③ Components and functions of the ritual. ④ the rituals, traditions, and history of other countries. Based on this survey, more data on Suryukjae, Yeongsanjae, and Jesusjae than on daily offering ceremony or sending off rituals for the dead. In addition, there are more materials on the elements of rituals such as beomeumbeompae and composition style (music, dance), Buddhist art (The paintings of Buddha and Bodhisattva), cultural assets, and ritual performances; and development and utilization of Buddhist ritual contents. Meanwhile, not much research on funda- mental and doctrinal aspects of ritual such as analysis of ritual texts or ritual structure, Buddhist thought reflected on a ritual, scriptural basis of a ritual, and the relationship with other Buddhist practices. In addition, to accurately grasp the meaning of the ritual, it is necessary to supplement research on its transmission and origination from India and China. more interest in Buddhist institutions and more active participation of scholars and ritual experts can help blossom Buddhist rituals in Korea. 본 연구는 국내 불교 의례와 관련한 연구 자료를 특정 주제별로 분류하여 소개하는 것이 목표다. 이를 통해 불교의례 관련한 연구 성과와 연구 성향을 파악할 수 있어불교의례의 연구나 연구 방법에 도움을 줄 수 있을 것이다. 추가적으로는 문헌조사나 심화 연구를 위한 기반이 될 수 있다. 본 연구는 학술지에 수록된 논문 기사에 중점을 두었다. 주요 연구자의 선정 기준은 불교의례 관련 연구의 편수, 인용도, 우수 저술을 고려한 영향력, 최신 자료 등을기준으로 하였다. 자료 분류의 주제는 먼저 네 개의 큰 주제하에 다수의 소 주제로 나누어 소개하였다. 네 가지 큰 주제는 ① 의례의 종류. ② 의례문과 불교사상. ③ 의례의 구성 요소와기능. ④ 타국 의례 및 전승과 역사가 그것이다. 분류된 연구 성과물에 구성 비율을 살펴보면 일상 예공이나 재공편에 대한 연구보다 수륙재, 영산재, 예수재 등에 관한 자료가 많다. 또한, 범음범패와 작법(음악, 무용), 불교미술(불화 및 장엄) 등의 의례의 구성 요소, 문화재 및 의례 공연, 콘텐츠 개발 및 활용에 관한 자료가 상대적으로 많다. 반대로 의례문이나 의례의 구조분석, 불교사상, 경전적 근거, 수행론과 관계 연구등 근본적이고 교리적 측면의 연구가 상대적으로 빈약하다. 또한, 의례의 의미를 정확히 파악하기 위해 인도 연원적 연구나 중국 등의 전승 과정에 대한 연구도 보충될필요가 있다고 판단된다. 불교의례 발전을 위해 승단의 불교의례에 대한 보다 많은관심과 기존 교학자및 설행자, 의례 전문가 등의 활발한 연구 참여가 요구된다.

인도의 불교의례와 그 변용 -인도와 한국 불교를 중심으로-

백도수 동방문화대학원대학교 불교문예연구소 2019 불교문예연구 Vol.0 No.12

본 논문은 인도 불교의례의 기원과 요소, 불교의례의 변용과 연구대상에 대해 다룬다. 불교의례는 초기불교에 나타난 경배, 귀속, 공양, 수행, 유행, 붓다장례, 합송에서 그 기원을 찾아볼 수 있다. 붓다에 대한 경배와 호칭, 붓다와 성자의 귀속문제 그리고 수계식, 의식주와 각종 필수물의 공양 이외에 꽃, 향 등의 공양, 수행과정에서의 의례와 유행 동안에서의 의례, 붓다의 사후의례와 장례문화, 경전의 합송과정에서 암송절차 등은 의례집전에 큰 영향을 미쳤다. 그리고 불교의례의 요소는 시간적ㆍ공간적ㆍ대상적ㆍ내용적ㆍ구조적으로 구분지을 수 있다. 간략히 설명하면, 시간적으로 공양ㆍ포살ㆍ법회, 생전과 사후의 의례로 구분되며 작법절차도 시간에 관련된다. 공간적 요소로는 승가를 위한 공간, 재가를 위한 공간, 절 안과 절 밖, 수계단, 열반 이후 사리탑과 불국토 등이 주요의례 요소가 된다. 내용별로는 승가생활의례ㆍ삼귀의 ㆍ예경ㆍ수계 등의 자행의례(自行儀禮)와 앙굴리말라의 순산기도 등의 타행의례(他行儀禮) 등을 엿볼 수 있다. 또한 예경대상과 선행공덕에 의한 생천 구조를 불교의례에서 지속하고 있다. 한편 초기불교에서 대승불교, 현재에 이르기까지 시대 흐름에 따라 불교의례와 관련한 의례도구, 의식법, 내용과 주체자도 점차 변천해 왔다. 그런 맥락에서 살펴보면, 불교의례는 물리적 불교의례용구의 연구와 시기별 구분에 의한 연구, 설행단(設行壇), 불국토, 신중 거주처, 공간배치, 장엄공간 등과 관련한 연구들이 함께 이루어져야 한다. 아울러 내용을 중심으로 각종 재와 각청, 참석대중과 절차 등에 관해서도 연구 되어야 한다. 특히 연구 폭을 확장하기 위해서는 기원과 변용, 번역과 사전작업, 의례비교연구가 절실히 요구된다. 왜냐하면 현재 불교의례는 초기불교, 대승불교의 다양한 의례기원과 요소를 포함하고 변용되어 왔기에 경전을 통해 인도의 불교의례를 이해하는 일이 선행되어야 하기 때문이다. This study deals with the origin and element of Indian buddhist rituals, changes of buddhist rituals according to the time and place and addresses objects of study in relation with buddhist ritual and its transformation. The buddhist ritual can be trace back to worshipping the Buddha and problem on belonging of the Buddha and Elders, offering of food, clothing and shelter, flowers and fragrance, ritual of buddhist practice, wandering, Buddha’s funeral after his death and recitation of discipline and canons, Buddhist ritual’s elements could be divided into the time, lace, object, content and structure. According to the time we could divide according to offering, Uposatha, Dharma talk, ritual in buddha’s living and after his death in addition to the process of ceremonial behavior. According to the place main elements of buddhist rituals could be thought about the place for buddhist Saṅgha or believers and in or out of temples, stupas and buddha-land after buddha’s death. According to contents, ritual for oneself, namely the ritual of buddhist community’s life, three refuges, worship, ordination etc. and ritual for others, namely Aṅgulimālā’s prayer for pregnant’s safe delivery appeared in buddhist Canons. Understanding today’s Korean buddhist ritual we need to study on buddhist ritual materials, time division of ritual, ritual places, constitutions of the place etc. and various and partisan, process of rituals in Indian buddhist Canons. In order to expand research field, we need to study on the origin of sectorial approach, transformation and translation, making dictionary and comparative study of buddhist ritual. we need to understand Indian buddhist rituals in Pali and Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan Canons.

불교 일용의식음악에 관한 학술·학위논문의 연구 동향

차형석 불교의례문화 연구소 2024 무형문화연구 Vol.0 No.13

이 글은 불교 일용의식음악의 연구 동향을 살펴보기 위하여 이혜구의 「新羅의 梵 唄」(1956)가 발표된 이후부터 2024년 2월에 이르기까지 국악학계의 학술지와 논문집 및 석․ 박사 학위논문을 검토하였다. 첫 논문 이후, 40년이 지나 김삼진의 「報念 과 禮佛文 考察」(1996)에서 일용의식음악을 처음 논의하였기에 그 해를 기준으로 1 기(1996~2005년), 2기(2006~2015), 3기(2016~현재)로 나누어 살펴보았다. 일용의식음악에 대한 연구동향을 정리하면 다음과 같다. 1기(1996~2005년) 학술지의 논문은 음악분석 연구가 대부분 현행 예불의식을 연구 주제로 삼았으며 개별 악곡 분석 및 음악의 특징을 밝히는 연구였다. 불교사적 연구는 세종대왕이 창제한 찬불가에 주목하여 불교음악이 연구되었으며, 일상의식에대한 내용은 제한적이었다. 박사 학위논문은 불교음악사에 대한 연구였는데, 한반도의 불교 전래나 신라 음악문화사의 불교 유입 과정에서 불교 일용의식을 국부적 으로 다루었고, 석사 학위논문은 현행 예불의식을 주제로 절차와 사상에 대해 논의하였다. 음악분석의 연구 자료는 연구자가 직접 채록하여 음악을 채보․ 분석하였고, 사적 연구는 삼국유사, 입당구법순례, 사리영응기 등의 문헌을 토대로 이루어졌다. 2기(2006~2015)의 학술지와 논문집은 초기의 음악분석 연구가 예불, 경전 독송, 사시불공, 지역 예불의식 등 일상의식 중심에서 중기에는 장례의식음악이나 타 종교에서 독송되는 <천수경> 등으로 연구 주제가 확산되는 현상을 보였다. 불교사적연구에서는 신라의 불교음악을 통일신라 이전 즉, 신라가 불교를 공인한 527년 이전소지왕대로 추정하고, 전문의식음악인 범패 외에 일상 예불의식 음악을 불교음악으로 인식함으로서 확장된 시각을 제언했다. 석사 학위논문은 경전 독송이나 새벽예불을 연구 주제로 활용해 악곡을 분석하였다. 전반적으로 이 시기는 음악분석을 통해 음악의 특징을 밝히는 분석 위주의 논문들이 다수였고, 연구 자료는 현장 채록 및방송용이나 발매 음원 또는 유성기 음반 등 다양한 매체를 활용한 채보와 분석이 이루어졌다. 3기(2016~현재)의 학술지 논문은 주로 음악분석 연구로 일상의례의 한글화와 전통 상단예불의식을 연구 주제로 다루어졌으며, 전통 강원의 상강례가 처음 연구대상으로 활용되었다. 불교사적 연구는 조선시대 내불당의 불교의식과 신라시대의 불교음악을 연구 주제로 삼았는데, 조선시대 내불당의 불교의식음악을 당시의 법회나염불 등에서 찾고자 하였으며, 신라시대 불교음악의 역사 기술은 확장된 시각으로보아야 한다는 견해가 보다 견고해졌다. 음악분석 자료로는 발간된 음원과 현장 채록 음원이, 사적 연구의 사료는 『사리영응기』와 『삼국유사』가 주로 활용되었다. This study examines the research trends in Buddhist daily ritual music by reviewing scholarly journal articles, anthologies, and master’s and doctoral theses from Lee Hye-gu’s “Silla’s Beompae (Buddhist ritual chant)” (1956), the first study on Buddhist music in the field of Korean traditional music studies, up to February 2024. Since the discussion on daily ritual music first emerged in Kim Sam-jin’s 1996 study, “An Examinaion of Boryeom and Yebulmun (Buddhist prayer text for ritual worship),” published 40 years after the initial study, the research is divided into three phases: Phase 1 (1996–2005), Phase 2 (2006–2015), and Phase 3 (2016–present). The research trends in Buddhist daily ritual music are summarized as follows. During Phase 1 (1996–2005), most scholarly journal articles focused on music analysis, with the primary research topics being contemporary Yebul (Buddhist ritual services) ceremonies, analyzing musical compositions and identifying the characteristics of the music. Historical research during this period concentrated on Buddhist music, particularly the Buddhist hymns created by King Sejong, but offered limited exploration of daily rituals. Doctoral dissertations mainly investigated the history of Buddhist music, partially addressing daily rituals in the context of the introduction of Buddhism to the Korean Peninsula and its integration into Silla’s musical culture. Master’s theses discussed contemporary Yebul rituals, focusing on their procedures and underlying philosophies. The research materials for music analysis were collected and transcribed by the researchers themselves, while historical research was based on texts such as Samgukyusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms), Ipdanggubeopsunrye (Records of the pilgrimage to China in search of the law), and Sariyeongeunggi (Records of sarira miracles). During Phase 2 (2006–2015), scholarly journals and anthologies initially focused on music analysis related to daily rituals such as Yebul (Buddhist ritual services), sutra recitation, Sasibulgong (Four daily offerings), and regional Yebul rituals. As this period progressed, research topics expanded to include ritual music for funerals and sutra recitations like the <Cheonsugyeong(Thousand-hand sutra)>, which is chanted in other religious contexts. Historical research during this phase proposed an expanded perspective by recognizing Silla Buddhist music before the unification of the Three Kingdoms, specifically prior to 527 when Buddhism was officially accepted during the reign of King Soji. This research suggested that, in addition to specialized ritual music like Beompae, the music of daily Yebul rituals should also be considered as part of Buddhist music. Master’s theses from this period often analyzed musical compositions of sutra recitations or dawn Yebul as their primary research topics. Overall, this phase was characterized by a predominance of music analysis studies that aimed to reveal the distinctive features of the music, utilizing various sources, including field recordings, broadcast media, commercially released music, and phonograph records, for transcription and analysis. During Phase 3 (2016–present), scholarly journal articles primarily focused on music analysis, with research topics centered on the transcription into Hangeul (Korean alphabet) of daily rituals and the traditional Sangdan Yebul (High-stage Yebul) rituals. Furthermore, for the first time, traditional rituals from monastic education, such as Sanggwanrye (Ritual for Monks), became subjects of study. Historical research in this phase focused on Buddhist rituals of the Naebuldang (Royal temple) during the Joseon Dynasty and Buddhist music from the Silla period. Scholars sought to trace the Buddhist ritual music of the Joseon era within events like dharma assemblies and Yeombul (Chanting by ordinary monks), and they argued for a broader perspective in documenting the history of Silla’s Buddhi...

조선시대 불화와 의례공간

정명희 동방문화대학원대학교 불교문화예술연구소 2015 불교문예연구 Vol.0 No.6

조선시대 신앙활동에 있어서 불교의식의 비중은 매우 증가하여, 건축, 불 상, 공예 등 불교미술 전반에서 의식문화의 영향이 광범위하게 확인된다. 본 고에서는 불교의례의 성행이 가져온 변화를 불교회화의 측면에서 살펴보았 다. 불화와 의례공간의 관련성은 주불전 내부의 의식과 야외 의식이라는 두 가지 측면에서 조망할 수 있다. 예배 공간으로 인식되던 주불전(主佛殿)은 다양한 법회(法會)와 의례가 개 최되는 공간으로 활용되었고, 전각 내부에는 의식 수요에 부응하는 불화가 봉 안되었다. 불보살을 도량[道場]에 청해 공양을 권하는 권공(勸供)과 육도의 중 생을 청하여 음식을 베푸는 시식(施食) 의례는 특정 의식에 한정되지 않고 불 교 문화 전반에 영향을 미쳤다. 수륙재의 성행은 특히 삼단의례(三壇儀禮)라 는 형식을 통해 저변화되었다. 그 결과 주불전 안에 상단(上壇), 중단(中壇), 하단(下壇)의 삼단이 갖추어지고, 각 단을 상징하는 불화가 하나의 기본 조합 을 이루게 된다. 한편 야외 의식용 대형 불화인 괘불(掛佛)이 전국적으로 조성되는 현상은 전각 외부로까지 확장된 의식에서 불화의 쓰임과 기능 확대를 보여준다. 불 화는 의식단의 가설에 따른 수요로 혹은 전각 내부에서 외부로 의식단이 옮 겨짐으로써 이동하였다. 불화를 거는 절차의 핵심은 의식이 진행되는 곳으로 불보살의 강림(降臨)을 청하는 것이다. 불보살의 강림은 도량에 초청하고자 하는 불보살의 명호를 부르는 거불(擧佛) 절차를 통해 상징되었다. 또한 거불 의 대상이 의식용 불화의 주제로 그려짐으로써 구체적으로 시각화되었다. 의 식을 위해 불화를 꺼내 이동하고, 의식을 마치면 다시 원래의 자리에 가져다 두는 일련의 절차는 불보살의 현존을‘도량으로의 강림’이라는 극적인 방식 으로 전달하였다. 이들의 강림을 찬탄하고 도량에 내려온 불보살에게 공양을 올리는 절차는 의식의 신이력을 높이는 데 기여하였다. 조선시대 불교회화는 전각에 봉안되어 불상의 뒤편에 놓여 불전이 상징하 는 불세계를 상징하는 데 그치지 않고 의식의 성행이라는 신앙의 흐름에서 역동적으로 기능하였다. 전각 외부로 확장되는 의식과 의식을 전담하는 불 화로의 이행을 대표하는 것이 괘불이라면, 감로도(甘露圖)는 의식에 사용되 던 불화가 전각 내부의 불화로 고정되는 현상을 보여준다. 의식의 성행으로 의식 전용 불화가 생겨나는 동시에 특정한 의식에 사용되던 불화가 상설 불 화로 봉안되었다. 조선시대 불교회화는 의식 수요에 부응하는 과정에서 그 주제와 구성에서 다양한 변용을 보이며 전개되었다. 불화가 봉안된 공간과 그 공간에서 이루어졌던 의식 문화를 통해 조선시대 불화의 다각적인 기능 을 이해할 수 있다. In regard to religious activities of the Joseon Dynasty, there was a significant rise of Buddhist rituals, and the influence of ritual culture was widely observed across Buddhist art including architecture, statues, and crafts. This study explores the changes brought about by the prevalence of Buddhist rituals in the Buddhist paintings. The correlation between Buddhist paintings and ritual spaces is surveyed from two aspects-indoor rituals held in the main halls of temples and outdoor rituals. The main hall, which was perceived as a place for worship, was utilized as a space for holding diverse Buddhist services and rituals, and Buddhist paintings were enshrined inside the halls in order to fulfill ritual demands. The ritual of inviting Buddha and bodhisattvas to the temple and making offerings, and the ritual of inviting all sattva in the six paramitas and sharing food were not limited to a particular ritual but had an influence on overall Buddhist culture. The growing prevalence of Suryukjae (the Water and Land ritual), a ceremony conducted for the salvation of all the souls of the dead on land and sea, occurred through the formality involving the threelevel altar ritual scheme. As a result, a three-level altar comprised of the upper, middle, and lower altar was formed within the main hall, with a Buddhist painting symbolic of each level comprising a single, basic composition. Meanwhile, the phenomenon of the production of large hanging Buddhist paintings for outdoor rites across the nation demonstrates the expansion in the use and function of Buddhist paintings in rites that have extended outside the halls. Buddhist paintings were moved according to demand of the installation of ritual altars or the relocation of the ritual altar from the inside to the outside of the hall. The purpose of hanging Buddhist paintings is in requesting and inviting the advent of Buddha and the bodhisattvas to the place where the ritual is held. The advent of Buddha and bodhisattva was symbolized through the process of calling out the names of deities to be invited to the temple. Moreover, the subject of the name dictation was visualized as it was depicted in paintings for ritual use. The process of taking out and moving paintings for rituals and returning them to their original positions after the rituals represents the “advent of Buddha and bodhisattva to the temple”in a dramatic way. The process of lauding the advent of Buddha and bodhisattva and making offerings to them greatly contributed to enhancing the mythical power of the rituals. The Buddhist paintings of the Joseon Dynasty were enshrined and hung in a hall behind the statue of Buddha, not only symbolizing the Buddhist world but actively utilized in the time when rituals prevailed as well. If large hanging scrolls of Buddhist painting are to represent the expansion of rites outside the hall and special Buddhist paintings used for the outdoor rituals, then gamnodo (nectar ritual paintings) demonstrate the phenomenon of paintings for ritual use being fixed as paintings within the hall. With the prevalence of rituals, there was an emergence of paintings used exclusively for rituals, and simultaneously paintings that were used for particular rituals were enshrined as permanent paintings inside a hall. Buddhist paintings of the Joseon Dynasty, throughout the process of meeting the demands of rituals, were diversified in theme and composition. The multilateral function of the Buddhist paintings of the Joseon period is understood by examining the space in which the paintings were enshrined and the rituals carried out in the space.

한국 불교의례에서 ‘먹임’과 ‘먹음’의 의미: 불공(佛供)·승재(僧齋)·시식(施食)의 3종 공양을 중심으로

민순의 ( Min Sun Euy ) 한국종교문화연구소(종교문화비평학회) 2017 종교문화비평 Vol.32 No.32

이른바 재례(齋禮)로 통칭될 수 있는 현행 한국불교의 주요 의례들은 그 제차의 상당 부분이 먹이고 먹는 행위의 양식과 관련되어 있다. 여기에서 한국불교가 ‘먹임’과 ‘먹음’이라는 행위에 대해 갖는 의미를 주목하게 된다. 본고는 불공(佛供), 승재(僧齋), 시식 (施食)이라는 3종의 의례 절차에 주목하여, 한국불교의 의례에서 먹임/먹음과 관련된 절차의 구조와 양상, 역사적 변천과 그 의미 등을 살펴보았다. 초기불교는 신체의 손상에 이르는 과도한 절식이나 음식에 대한 탐착 모두를 거부하는 중도(中道)적 음식관을 지니고 있었다. 음식의 섭취는 적절한 건강상태를 유지하여 올바른 수행을 가능케 하는 수단이었다. 음식에 대한 이 같은 초기불교의 중도적 기능주의의 태도는 이후 불교의 전 역사를 통해 관철되었다. 당초 재가신도들이 승려들의 수행을 보필하고자 공경의 마음을 담아 음식과 생활 필수품 등을 바치던 행위인 공양(供養)은 동시에 재가자들 스스로가 공덕을 쌓는 수단으로도 인식됨으로써, 공양은 승단과 재가 사이에서 불도수행(佛道修行)과 공덕(功德)이라는 가치를 주고받으며 성립되는 이원론(dualism)적인 상호 교환적 가치체계를 구축하게 된다. 이후 대승불교의 불탑공양을 거쳐 동아시아로 전파되며 그 신앙적 의미가 깊어진 불공(佛供)의 의례는 상단(上壇)의 불보살에게 바쳐짐으로써 그들의 초월적 위신력과 가피를 구하려는 종교적 의미 또한 획득한 것으로 보인다. 한편 승려들을 초청하여 음식을 제공하고 설법을 듣는 초기불교의 청식(請食) 전통은 불공의 종교적 의례화와는 별도로 존속하였으며, 고중세기 한국 사료에 남아있는 반승(飯僧)의 기록은 그 대표적인 흔적으로 보인다. 그런데 반승의 사례는 청식의 전통이 한국 등 동아시아 불교문화에서 변용되면서 국가권력과 왕권의 강화에 기여하는 정치사회적 의미를 띠게 되었음을 노정한다. 그러나 이는 동시에 수행과 깨달음이라는 목표를 지향하는 종교적 축제로서의 기능적 의미적 확장을 의미하기도 한다. 오늘날 반승은 영산재 식당작법(食堂作法)의 승재(僧齋) 양식 속에 그 흔적을 남긴 듯하다. 하단(下壇)의 영가(靈駕)에게 행해지는 시식(施食)은 한국불교의 재례가 자비와 공덕의 대상을 삼세중생으로 넓혀 우주적 차원의 구원론으로 확장되었음을 보여준다. 이 단계에 이르러 한국 불교의례에서 먹임 주체의 음식에 대한 태도는 초기불교의 ‘수행과 불이론(不二論)적으로 합치하는 공덕 추구’에서 ‘세속적 국가권력의 강화’ 태도를 거쳐 마침내 ‘공덕과 회향(回向)의 우주적 확산’이라는 국면으로 착실히 수렴되고 있다. 또 먹음주체의 입장에서는 먹음으로 표상되는 자력적 수행의 차원이 종내 타력적 구원으로 확장됨으로써, 국가-교단 간의 권력 관계를 넘어 대중적 기복 신앙으로 기층화되는 양상을 보게 된다. 재가신도와 하층민 나아가 삼세육도의 모든 중생에게 혜택과 공덕이 미치며 세속적인 측면까지 아우르는 축제 분위기에 도달한 것이다. 요컨대 한국의 불교의례는 초기불교의 기능주의적 물질적 음식관과 승단 청식의 전통을 받아들이며, 상단과 중단 그리고 하단에 이르는 3중의 의례적 구조를 완성하였고, 그 과정에서 수행과 공덕의 상호 교환적 가치로 재해석되는 이원주의적 사유체계, 초월적 존재에 대한 종교적 신앙심, 국가와 교단간의 정치사회적 권력관계, 수행과 공덕으로 성속을 아우르는 축제의 이미지, 그리고 마침내 자력과 타력을 두루하는 우주적 차원의 불교구원론이라는 다양한 의미의 지층을 중층적으로 포섭하게 되었다. The jaeryes(齋禮, upavasatha rituals), one of the main Korean Buddhist rituals of today, are closely related with the acts of ‘feeding’ and ‘eating’. This treatise is focused on the triple practices of Bulgong(佛供, offering food to the Buddhas and the Bodhisattvas), Seungjae(僧齋, serving food to Buddhist monks) and Shishik(施食, offering food to others, especially ghosts), and then examines the structures, the aspects, the historical changes and the meanings of feeding/eating in those procedures. Early Buddhism held the material and functional attitude on food, and this attitude prohibited both the excessive temperance in food and the attachment to food. The intake of food was just to maintain a good health and to perform the appropriate religious self-disciplines. This tendency has been carried on throughout history. The gongyang(供養), which is offering action to monks by the lay persons out of the respects for monks’ disciplines, has been regarded as a kind of means for the lay persons to accumulate the merits, or the Buddhist charities, by doing good for others. Therefore, a dualistic and commutative value system has been established between the samgha and the laity : indulging in Buddhist self-disciplines for the monks and the charity-based merits for lay persons. The gongyang has been diversified in its forms and its various concepts has been widely disseminated to East Asian countries including Korea. It comes up to claim the religious meaning : the pursuit of transcendental force from the transcendental Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. In this connection, the gongyang was performed to dedicate things to the Buddhas and the Bodhisattvas at the top altar of the main hall in the temple : it is also called Bulgong(佛供). Meanwhile, the tradition of inviting Buddhist monks to dinner and listening to Buddhist sermon in return had been transformed into Banseung(飯僧, ritual for kings to feed the monks) in Shilla(新羅) Dynasty of Korean Ancient Ages and in Koryeo(高麗) Dynasty of Korean Middle Ages. Actually the mode of Banseung practices demonstrated the national power which was overwhelming the Buddhist order. It also functioned as a kind of festival which was sacred rather than secular. Festivals are usually the entertainments and the enjoyments for the commoners but this Buddhist festivals were in a way of promoting the Buddhist self-disciplines and enlightenment. Today it seems to be handed down in the form of a Buddhist ritual practices called Shikdangjakbeop(食堂作法) : it is also called Seungjae(僧齋). Finally Shishik(施食), the ritual practices of offering food to ghosts displayed at the bottom altar of the main hall of the temple, shows the popular and universal Buddhist salvation. In this step, the attitude-to-food of feeding agents in the Buddhist rituals becomes to have the overlapping meaning, from the material and functional attitude on food and the dualistic and commutative value system around religious self-disciplines and charities in Early Buddhism, to the popular and universal extension of religious salvation. Simultaneously, the way of self-disciplines includes not only one’s own exertion but also pursuit of transcendental power in a dimension of the eating agents of Buddhist rituals. It means the popularization of the faith for blessing. Now, in a sense, it seems the festival over the sacred and the secular together. In short, Korean Buddhist rituals accepted the material and functional attitde on food and the tradition of inviting Buddhist monks to dinner in early Buddhism, and completed the triple ritual-altar structures from top for the Buddhas and the Bodhisattvas to bottom for ghosts and mean creatures. And then it involved the dualistic thinking system of mutual exchangeable values around religious self-disciplines and charities, the faith in transcendental beings, the power relation between national order and Buddhist order, the image of festival over the sacred and the secular together, and finally universal salvation concept embracing the salvation from one’s own exertion and that from outside. And all of those can be explained in the contexts of feeding/eating in the Korean Buddhist ritual procedures and performances.

한국 불교미술 연구의 새로운 모색 -이미지: 도상과 기능의 소통을 위하여

강희정 미술사와 시각문화학회 2007 미술사와 시각문화 Vol.6 No.-

Buddhist art in East Asia basically functioned as religious objects, largely different from works of art created for purely aesthetic purposes. So did Korean Buddhist art. It had various functions as religious art. The usage of Buddihst art was wide-ranging from objects for ritual and worship to visual narratives of the Buddha’s life created for the education of lay men and women. Given that the functions of Buddhist art are diverse, it cannot be understood completely without considering its complex ritual context. More attention has to be given to how Buddhist images were created and used within the specific context of Buddhist religious practices and rituals. Buddhist rituals have been largely neglected in the previous studies of Buddhist images that have been concerned primarily with stylistic analysis and iconography. In this essay, I have proposed some new ways to understand Buddhist art. Firstly, we have to use Buddhist ritual manuals as a means of examining the relationship between Buddhist rituals and Buddhist images. Buddhist ritual manuals are of great importance in highlighting how Buddhist images were used in Buddhist rituals. Secondly, iconological studies of Buddhist images must consider their functions and uses. This leads us to rethink why and how the specific iconographic program of Buddhist images was created. It also helps us to reconstruct the environment in which the iconography of Buddhist images was inseparable from their functions. Thirdly, we have to pay more attention to the original context of Buddhist images. Most studies of Buddhist images have been based on our imagination and assumption. Buddhist paintings, sculptures, and architectures must be treated as a whole in order to understand how Buddhist art functioned in a specific religious context. Lastly, we must take interdisciplinary approaches to Buddhist art. The theory and method of anthropology, sociology, religious studies, and cultural studies will be of great help in reaching a comprehensive understanding of how Buddhist images were made and used as religious objects.