미서전쟁과 미제국의 이념 만들기 -아메리카니즘 vs 브리티시즘-

최정수 ( Jeong-soo Choi ) 한국서양사학회 2016 西洋史論 Vol.0 No.129

이 연구의 목적은 1898년에 미국이 제국으로 변신하게 된 배경을 1895-1898년에 벌어졌던 미영동맹을 둘러싼 찬반논쟁을 통해 보여주는데 있다. 특히 3개의 논쟁에 주목했다. 퓰리처와 루즈벨트 간의 외교체제 논쟁, 카네기와 마한의 군사체제논쟁, 아메리카니즘을 둘러싼 논쟁 등이 그것이다. 이를 위해 본문을 모두 3개장으로 나누어 살폈다. 먼저 제2장에서는 퓰리처와 카네기와 미영동맹 찬성론을 소개하고, 이어서 제3장에서는 루즈벨트와 마한의 비판 및 대안을 제시했다. 끝으로 제4장에서는 미서전쟁 직후의 미영동맹론과 루즈벨트 및 마한의 대응을 검토했다. 이를 통해 기존의 연구를 통해서 알기가 어려웠던 다음과 같은 점을 보여주었다.첫째, 미영동맹을 둘러싼 전쟁 전의 찬반 논쟁은 미 제국의 성격을 결정하는데 중요한 역할을 했다. 그것이 제국의 설계도(거대전략)에 반영되었기 때문이다. 먼로독트린, 문호개방, 중재조약 등이 그것이다. 전 2자는 루즈벨트와 마한이 각각 주창한 전략이며, 후자는 카네기가 추진했던 전략이다. 미국의 이러한 거대전략이 이후 미국으로 하여금 유럽의 제국과 다른 유형의 제국의 길을 걷게 했다. 둘째, 미영동맹을 둘러싼 찬반논쟁은 미서전쟁의 중요한 배경이기도 했다는 것이다. 미영동맹론은 동맹반대론자들이 보기에는 미국의 외교와 군사주권의 제약이요, 나아가 정신적/지적 정체성을 파괴하는 행위에 다름 아니었다. 이를 어떻게 추방할 것인가. 루즈벨트와 마한은 미국이 독자적인 외교 및 군사체제를 구축함으로써 미영동맹 찬성론의 근거를 제거해야 한다고 판단했다. 때마침 쿠바문제가 미국과 스페인 간의 전쟁위기로 치닫자, 미영동맹 반대론자들은 미서전쟁이 그러한 결과를 가져다 줄 수 있다고 보았다. 이에 루즈벨트와 마한은 스페인과의 전쟁을 이용하기로 했으며, 그렇게 했다. 미영동맹을 둘러싼 찬반논쟁을 미서전쟁의 배경으로볼 수 있는 것도 이 때문이다. 셋째, 아메리카니즘은 미국의 거대전략의 이데올로기요, 독트린이었다는 것이다. 그 속에 미영동맹론이 제기될 때마다 악순환되는국민 분열을 치유하자는 의지를 담아냈기 때문이다. 즉 대영제국의 앵글로 색슨주의와 그것을 미국인의 가치관으로 삼고 있는 동부지역의 브리티시즘으로 부터 미국인의 지적 및 정신적 독립을 지키고, 분열된 동서통합을 위해 마련된 이념이 바로 아메리카니 즘이었다는 것이다 The purpose of this paper is to study the making of the doctrine and system of the U.S. modern empire during the Spanish-American War. Three questions were focused on. First, who is the designer of the U.S. Grand strategy? Second, why did the United States of America make the Grand strategy? Finally, who conceptualized Americanism and why? This article consists of three chapters. Chapter one researched the plan of the Anglo-American alliance with the British Empire and the Easterner before the 1898 war. Andrew Carnegie and Joseph Pulitzer planned a Reunion between America and England, and pressed the U.S. Government to adopt it. Chapter two deals with the assertion of the antagonists about the Anglo-American alliance. Theodore Roosevelt and Alfred Mahan play a leading role against the Reunion. The argument of the two men is about a Reunion between the East and the West. Therefore, two elite groups debate hotly on that question. Chapter three examines the debate on a question about the Anglo-American alliance after the Spanish-American War. The debate on the Reunion question was decided by the War in 1898. The conclusions of this paper are as follows. The first is that the purpose of the Anglo-American Alliance of the British and the Easterner is to bring about the expansionism of America in 1898. This is because the antagonist regards the Anglo-American Alliance as an entity that would result in the loss of the U.S. diplomatic and military sovereignty and spiritual independence. American expansionism headed toward the modern empire with a grand strategy. The U.S. grand strategy consisted of three parts; the globalization of the U.S. foreign policy, the globalization of the military system and the constructing of a theory of new American identity. Second, Americanism is an argument against the Anglo-American alliance. Americanism is a concept contrary to Briticism or Anglo-Saxionism. Americanism is intellectual independence from Briticism. In a word, Americanism is Americanization of the Easterner and the British Empire. The substance of “true Americanism” is the opposite view of the Anglo-American Alliance. (Hanyang University / chjsid@empas.com)

4국협조체제와 한일병합의 국제관계, 1907~1912 - 영국의 동맹협상외교와 연계하여 -

김원수 동북아역사재단 2010 東北亞歷史論叢 Vol.- No.29

본 연구는 한국문제가 한국조항을 삭제한 3차 영일동맹에서야 완결된다는 사실에 착목하여, 1910년까지로 한정된 기존의 한국병합연구의 시간범주를 1912년까지로 확대하였다. 그리고 영일동맹의 주축으로 한 4국협조체제가 일본의 한국병합과정과 연동되고 있는 사실에 주목하여, 한국병합을 러일전쟁의 사후처리 과정으로 보는 기존의 단선적인 시각에서 벗어나, 4국협조체제의 상호 작동성이라는 관점에서 재조명해 봄으로써 한국병합을 둘러싼 국제관계사의 전후 맥락을 재구성하려 하였다. 이는 기존의 중심담론들을 넘어서, 다계적이고 다원적인 해석의 장을 제기함으로서 한국병합관련 연구의 지평을 확대하려는 것이다. 제1장에서는 4국협조체제와 동아시아 국제관계의 변화를 다루었다. 이는 일본의 한국병합이 러일전쟁의 사후처리라는 관점보다는 1907년 외교혁명으로 재편된 4국협조체제의 상호 작동성이라는 관점에서 재조명하기 위함이다. 2장에서는 3차한일협약 전후의 국제관계와 영국의 대일지원 과정을 다루었다. 이를 통해 정미7조약과 헤이그밀사사건, 고종퇴위에 영국은 일본의 동맹국으로 역할을 충실히 했음을 알수 있다. 3장에서는 간도협약 전후의 국제관계와 영국의 대일지원 사례를 다루었다. 이로서 청의 헤이그중재재판 회부기도, 간도와 만주문제에 대한 청일협약과정에서 영국의 일본 지원이 있었음을 밝혔다. 4장에서는 한국병합 전후의 국제관계와 영국의 대일견제를 다루었다. 일본의 한국병합에 관한 영국과 일본의 사전접촉, 그리고 병합이후 한국조항을 삭제한 3차 영일동맹이 미영중재재판조약 및 제3차 러일협상과 상호 연동 됨을 밝혔다. 그 대요는 다음과 같다. 20세기 초 영국의 외교전략은 주변 지역들과의 동맹, 협조체제를 구축함으로써 제국의 틀을 유지하고 식민지 세계를 정립하려 했다. 특히 영국이 일본과 구축한 동맹체제와 프랑스 및 러시아와 맺은 협상체제는 외교혁명이라 할 만큼 새로운 국제관계 및 외교전략의 틀을 변화시켰고, 유럽 본토는 물론 세계 전 지역의 세력판도에 영향을 주었다. 한일병합 전후 동북아시아의 경우도 그 예외는 아니었다. 당시 영국의 세계정책이 미친 일련의 국제적 변동과 일본의 행동에는 동맹과 협조를 통한 상호 이해가 작동되고 있으며, 그것의 추진 속도와 결속력의 강약에 따라 일본의 한국병합이 진척되고 있음이 밝혀진다. 제1차 영일동맹은 일본의 러일전쟁외교와 만한 정책을 현실화하였으며, 한국조항을 수정한 제 2차 영일동맹은 한국의 보호국화와 연계되고 있다. 한편 1907년의 일불, 일러, 영러의 4국협조체제는 제 3차 한일협약과 간도 문제, 일본의 사전 병합 조치, 간도협약, 일본의 한국병합 뿐 만 아니라 나아가 병합이후 한국조항을 삭제한 3차 영일동맹, 미영중재재판조약 및 제3차 러일협상과 긴밀 연동되고 있다. 이 일련의 과정에 영국은 동맹국으로서의 의무를 비교적 충실히 이행하고 있었다. 그리고 그 배후에는 일불협상과 러일협상 및 영러협상을 통해 미국의 만주 진출과 독미청동맹구상 및 러시아의 전쟁위협을 제어한 다각적인 동맹협조체제의 구축을 전제로 한 실천계획이 뒷받침되고 있었다. 고로 일본의 한국병합의 전반 과정은 영국을 중심한 제국주의 열강과 일본의 다계적인 동맹협조체제 구축과정에서 나타난 세계체제의 변화과정의 부산물이었다. 요컨대 한일병합문제는 만주를 ... This article is to reconsider the International Relations of the Quadruple Entente System & Japanese Seizure of Korea from 1907 until 1912 with the global historical perspective. This work will be revealed clear that Japanese Annexation of Korea had been influenced by Interconnection of the Quadruple Entente system which has been made by Western Powers and Japan. It was the multilateral systems. In this research, I specially focused on the Interaction of the British entente diplomacy and the Japanese foreign policy in Korea & Manchuria in this period. It will be broaden the Horizon of the studies on the Japanese Annexation of Korea. Chapter 1 is to connect the Quadruple Entente System with the International relations in early 20th century. Chapter 2 is to the Anglo-Japanese relations with 3th Korea-Japanese Agreement. Chapter 3 is to the Anglo-Japanese relations related with Gando Agreement. Chapter 4 is to the Anglo-Japanese relations related with the Japanese Annexation of Korea. Brief summary is as follows After the Russo-Japanese War, Japanese-French Agreement, Russo-Japanese Agreement, and Anglo-Russian Convention were concluded in 1907. This Quadruple system was to bring about the End of "the Great Game". Since then, In East Asia, Quadruple Enetente system based on the Anglo-Japanese Alliance was constructed and In Europe, Triple Entente system were operated. Interaction of Quadruple Entnete was forced to threaten and encircled German in Europe as well as to restrict the American Expansion from Asian Pacific. Therefore Germany actively took a plan for German-China-American Alliance. Nevertheless, Japan had free hands in Northeastern Asia regions under the British diplomatic assistance. Such an International change in East Asia was able to make shape of realizing Japanese Plan to annex Korea and to preoccupy Manchuria including Gando region from 1907 until 1912. Therefore Japanese Seizure of Korea has been not only influenced by Quadruple system based on Anglo-Japanese Alliance, but also controlled by Intervention and Restriction of German and America. Such actions were proved by Kaiser's Plan for German-China-American Alliance Connection from 1907 to 1909, Theodore Roosevelt's Initiative on the Root-Dakahira Agreement in 1908, The Knox's Neutralization Plan for Manchurian railway in 1909. Anglo-Japanese preliminary contacts with Gando and Manchurian problems in 1909 and Anglo-American Arbitration Treaty after the Japanese Seizure of Korea. All these measures were revealed that Japanese Annexation of Korea has been influenced by the Interaction of Quadruple system. It was the Imperial struggle for Restablishing the Sphere of Influence in East Asia. But the Japanese seizure of Korea was not completed. the reason why was that The Aftermath of the Annexation of Korea was to increase the threat of war between America and Japan. It caused by the 2th Russo-Japanese Convention and the Strengthening of the Quadruple system. Counteraction was immediately taken by Taft Ministration suggesting the Arbitration Treaty between United State and England. In the aftermath of this, 3th Anglo-Japanese alliance was concluded in 13th,July,1911. In this course, the clauses related with korea and Russo-Japanese War were eliminated. It was the last diplomatic action for the Korean Problem taken step by Japan. In these measure, Korean problem was officially completed. In the course, British Entente policy was the unwavering support. But the Conclusion of the Arbitration Treaty between United State and England was to bring about the change of the Quadruple Entente system based Anglo-Japanese alliance. Now Anglo-Japanese relation was estranged, but Anglo-American diplomatic relationship is renewed. It means that Japan's Regional power is challenged.

영일동맹과 한일병합의 글로벌 히스토리, 1905-1911

김원수(Kim Wonsoo) 한국사회과교육연구학회 2010 사회과교육 Vol.49 No.4

전지구적 국제관계에서 보면, 러일전쟁이후 동북아시아는 만한문제를 둘러싸고 영일동맹 중심의 4국협 조체제가 중핵에 놓여있었고, 미국이 주도하는 중재협상체제, 독일의 독미청동맹구상이 그 외연을 이루고 있었다. 그 곳은 세력균형의 동맹협조체제와 국제법의 세계 체제가 작동하고 있는 접속지역이었다. 이 트랜스내셔널한 지역에서 일어난 일본의 한국강제병합은 단순히 한반도의 식민지화에 그치는 지역적 사건이 아니었다. 한일 병합은 동아시아 세력판도, 열강의 세계정책 뿐 만 아니라, 이후 제국주의의 세계체제를 변화시킨 중요 기점으로 작동했던 글로칼한/세계사적 사건이었다. This article is to reconsider the International Relations of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance & the Japanese annexation of Korea from 1907 until 1911 from the global historical perspective. In this research, I specially focus on the Interaction of British entente diplomacy and Japanese foreign policy in Korea & Manchuria in this period. the Japanese Annexation of Korea has been not only influenced by the Quadruple system based on the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, but also controlled by the Intervention and the Restriction of Germany and America. Such actions were proved by Kaiser’s Plan for a German-American-Chinese Alliance, the Root-Dakahira Agreement, Knox’s Neutralization Plan for the Manchurian Railway, the 3rd Anglo-Japanese Alliances and the Anglo-American Arbitration Treaty after the Japanese Seizure of Korea. All these measures revealed that the Japanese Annexation of Korea was influenced by the Interaction of Quadruple system based on the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, It was the Imperial struggle for Reestablishing the Sphere of Influence in NorthEastern Asia. But the Japanese Annexation of Korea had not been completed in 1910. The reason was that the aftermath of the Annexation of Korea was to increase the threat of war between America and Japan. This caused the 2nd Russo-Japanese Convention and the Strengthening of the Quadruple system. Counteraction was immediately taken by the Taft administration suggesting an Arbitration Treaty between the United States and England. In the aftermath of this, the 3rd Anglo-Japanese Alliance was concluded in 13th,July,1911. In this course, the clauses related with Korea and the Russo-Japanese War were eliminated. It was the last diplomatic action for the Korean Problem taken by Japan. In these measures, Korean problem was officially resolved. In the course of events, the Anglo-Japanese Alliance made by British entente policy was unwavering support. But the conclusion of the Arbitration Treaty between the United States and England was to bring about the change of the Quadruple Entente system based on the Anglo-Japanese alliance. Now Anglo-Japanese relations were estranged, but the Anglo-American diplomatic relationship was renewed.

러일전쟁과 만한문제의 국제화, 1905-1912 -4국앙탕트와 연계하여-

김원수 만주학회 2013 만주연구 Vol.- No.16

This article is to reconsider the International relations of the Quadruple Entente and the Manchuria-Korea(the Manhan)Problem occurred from 1905 until 1912 with global perspective. This work will be revealed clear that the Manhan Problem was not merely territorial dispute among Korea, China and Japan, but the result of the Quadruple Entente system which has been made by Western Powers and Japan. It was the multiple entente systems. In this research, I specially focused on the interconnection with the Quadruple Entente and the Manhan Problem which was overlooked until now. It will be broaden the horizon of Korean studies and Manchurian Studies in these periods. After the Russo-Japanese War, Japanese-French Agreement, Russo-Japanese Agreement, and Anglo-Russian Convention were concluded in 1907. This Quadruple system was to bring about the End of “the Great Game”. Since then, In East Asia, Quadruple Enetente system based on the Anglo-Japanese Alliance was constructed and In Europe, Triple Entente system were operated. Interaction of Quadruple Entente was forced to threaten and encircled German’s Triple Alliance in Europe as well as to restrict the American Expansion from Asian Pacific. Therefore Germany actively took a plan for German-China-American Alliance. Nevertheless, Japan had free hands in Northeastern Asia regions under the British diplomatic assistance. Such an International change in East Asia was able to make shape of realizing Japanese Plans to annex Korea and preoccupy Southern Manchuria including Gando region from 1907 until 1912. Therefore Japanese penetration into Korea and Manchuria has been not only influenced by Quadruple entente system, but also controlled by Intervention and Restriction of German and America. Such actions were proved by Kaiser’s Plan for German-China-American Alliance Connection from 1907 to 1909, Theodore Roosevelt’s Initiative on the Root-Dakahira Agreement in 1908, The Knox’s Neutralization Plan for Manchurian railway in 1909. Anglo-Japanese preliminary contacts with Gando and Manchurian problems in 1909 and Anglo-American Arbitration Treaty after the Japanese Seizure of Korea. All these measures were revealed that Japanese Annexation of Korea and preoccupation of Manchuria had been influenced by the Interaction of Quadruple system. It was the Imperial struggle for Reestablishing the sphere of influence in East Asia. But the Japanese seizure of Korea was not completed. The reason why was that The Aftermath of the Annexation of Korea was to increase the threat of war between America and Japan. It caused by the 2nd Russo-Japanese Convention and the Strengthening of the Quadruple system. Counteraction was immediately taken by Taft administration suggesting the Arbitration Treaty between United State and England. In the aftermath of this, 3th Anglo-Japanese alliance was concluded in 13th,July,1911. In this treaty, the clauses related with korea and the Russo-Japanese War were eliminated. It was the last diplomatic action for the Korean Problem taken step by Japan and Britain. In these measure, Korean problem was officially completed. In the course, British Entente policy was the unwavering support. But the Conclusion of the Arbitration Treaty between United State and England was to bring about the change of the Quadruple Entente system based on Anglo-Japanese alliance. Now Anglo-Japanese relation was estranged, but Anglo-American diplomatic relationship is renewed. It means that Japan’s regional power is to be challenged and power politics in east asia is to be changed. 본 연구는 러일전쟁이후 발생한 만주문제와 한국문제를 1907년에 구축된 4국앙탕트(the Quadruple Entente)와 상호작동성이라는 관점에서 재조명하여, 동북아시아를 둘러싼 국제관계의 전후 맥락을 재구성한 것이다. 먼저 러일전쟁이후 외교혁명을 통해 구축된 4국앙탕트 체제와 동아시아 국제관계의 변화를 다루었다. 이는 일본의 만한정책이 러일전쟁의 사후처리라는 관점보다는 1907년의 외교혁명으로 구축된 4국앙탕트와의 상호 작동성이라는 관점에서 재조명하려는 것이었다. 다음으로 정미7조약과 헤이그밀사사건, 고종퇴위와 간도협약 전후의 국제관계와 4국앙탕트와의 상호작동성을 다루었다. 이로서 청의 헤이그중재재판 회부기도, 간도와 만주문제에 대한 청일협약과정에서 4국앙탕트와의 연동성을 밝혔다. 그리고 마지막으로 한국병합 전후의 국제관계와 4국앙탕트와의 상호 작동을 다루었다. 일본의 한국병합에 관한 영국과 일본의 사전접촉, 그리고 병합이후 한국조항을 삭제한 3차 영일동맹이 미영중재재판조약 및 제3차 러일협상과 상호 연계됨을 밝혔다. 이같은 국제관계를 통한 글로벌한 역사접근의 시도는 기존의 중심담론들을 넘어서, 다계적이고 다원적인 해석의 장을 제기함으로써, 한반도, 나아가 동아시아 중심의 글로벌한 국제관계사 연구의 지평을 확대하려는 것이다.

러일전쟁과 외교혁명의 국제관계, 1904~1907

김원수(Kim Won-soo) 국방부 군사편찬연구소 2015 군사 Vol.- No.97

This article is to reconsider the International relations of the Russo Japanese War and the Diplomatic Revolution from 1904 until 1907 from the global points of view. This study is especially focusing on interconnecting it with the Portsmouth Peace Conference, the Algeciras Conference and the Quadruple Entente. This work will be revealed clearly that the Korea and Manchurian Problems including Gando matter happened in these periods were the transnational/global issues that had been not only made bv territorial dispute among Korea, China and Japan, but also the result of the Quadruple Entente system made by Britain, Russia, France and Japan. In this research, I specially was to be connected international relationships of the Russo Japanese War with the Diplomatic Revolution happened by Quadruple Entente which was overlooked until now. It will be broaden the horizon of the Russo Japanese War Studies in these periods. As mentioned above, Japanese military invasion and protectorate of Korean peninsula during the war were illegal and they were executed with coercive measures. On the pretext of the dispatch of the Hague special envoy, Japan deposed the Korean king by military force, as well as illegally concluded the 3rd Korean-Japanese Agreement(1907) plundering Korea"s internal affairs and furthermore, dismissed the Korean army by force, to infiltrate into the Gando Area in Manchuria. On the other hand, after the Russo-Japanese War, the Franco-Japanese Agreement, the Russo-Japanese Agreement, and the Anglo-Russian Convention were concluded in 1907. This Quadruple Entente was to bring about the End of “the Great Game”. Since then, In East Asia, Quadruple Entente system based on the Anglo-Japanese Alliance was operated, and in Europe, Triple Entente system were constructed. Interaction of Quadruple Entente was forced to threaten and encircled German’s Triple Alliance in Europe as well as to restrict the American Expansion from Asian Pacific. Therefore, Germany actively took a plan for German-China-American Alliance. Nevertheless, Japan had free hands in Northeastern Asia regions under the British diplomatic assistance. Such an International change in East Asia was able to make shape of realizing Japanese plans to protectorate Korea and preoccupy Southern Manchuria including Gando region from 1904 until 1907. Therefore, Japanese invasion into Korea and Manchuria has been not only influenced by Quadruple entente system, but also controlled by intervention and restriction of German and America. Such actions were proved by Kaiser"s plan for German-China- American Alliance connection from 1907 to 1909, Theodore Roosevelt"s Initiative on the Root-Dakahira Agreement in 1908, Anglo-Japanese preliminary contacts with Gando and Manchurian problems in 1909. All these measures were revealed that Japanese protectorate of Korea and preoccupation of Manchuria had been influenced by the Interaction of Quadruple system. It was the Imperial struggle for Reestablishing the sphere of influence in East Asia.

윌리엄 스테드(W. T. Stead)의 논평을 통해 본 20세기 전환기 세계의 미국화

이민경 고려대학교 역사연구소 2024 사총 Vol.111 No.-

본 연구는 윌리엄 스테드의 『세계의 미국화 혹은 20세기의 흐름』에 실린 논평들을 검토하여 20세기 전환기 영어권 세계에 관한 지식인들의 사고를 드러내는 동시에 당대의 시각에서 조망한 ‘세계의 미국화“에 대한 사회적 사고의 면면을 고찰하고자 한다. 우선, 급변하는 국제 정세 속 번영의 시기를 구가하던 영제국의 관점에서 급부상한 미국의 영향력에 대한 위기의식을 당대의 지식인들이 어떻게 인식하고 있었는지, 또한 어떻게 대처하고자 했는지 살펴보고자 한다. 특히 20세기 전환기 당대의 인사들이 바라본 ‘미국’과 ‘미국화’에 대한 통찰과 미래의 유토피아에 대한 전망을 검토하여 현재까지 알려져 있는 역사사실의 빈 공간을 채워보고자 한다. 이로부터 본고는 당시 미국화된 세계에 대한 평가, 앵글로 색슨과 영제국 식민지를 중심으로 한 통합의 세계, 그리고 미래에 대한 구상이 미국이 주도하는 세계의 블록화가 다양하게 전개되고 있는 현재에 대한 서론이었음을 밝힌다. This study examines the commentary featured in William Stead's The Americanization of the World or the Trend of the 20th Century shedding light on the thoughts of intellectuals regarding the English- speaking world at the turn of the 20th century, while exploring the aspects of social thinking on the “Americanization of the World” from the perspective of the time. First, this study explores how intellectuals of the time perceived the sense of crisis regarding the emergent influence of the United States from the perspective of the British Empire, which was enjoying a period of prosperity in a rapidly changing international situation, and how they attempted to cope with this shift. In particular, it aims to fill in the gaps in the historical facts known to date by examining insights of contemporary intellectuals into ‘America’ and ‘Americanization’, and prospects for future utopia as seen by them at the turn of the century. Consequently, it elucidates that the evaluation of the Americanized world at that time, the integration of a world centered around Anglo-Saxon and British imperial colonies, and the envisioning of the future served as an overture of the current diverse deployment of blocs in a world led by the United States.

존 퀸시 아담스와 먼로독트린

김정은 ( Jeong Eun Kim ) 호남사학회 2007 역사학연구 Vol.31 No.-

러일 비밀협약과 러시아의 몽골 정책

석화정(Seok, Hua-jeong) 국방부 군사편찬연구소 2014 군사 Vol.- No.92

The third secret treaty which Russia and Japan signed on July 8, 1912 maximized their imperial interests in East Asia. and precisely defined their boundaries in Mongolia compared to the previous Treaty of 1907. After the secret agreement with Japan, Russian government readily made Mongolia as a buffer area against China through Russo-Mongolian Treaty in 1912 and the Declaration and Exchange of Notes by Russia and China in 1913. ‘Autonomous Mongolia’ under the suzerainty of China was ratified in 1915 at the Tripartite Treaty of Kiakhta by Mongolia, Russia, and China. In reality, Russia had assumed that China would played a role in acting as the guarantor of Outer Mongolian autonomy. Inner Mongolia, however, lost its local autonomy forever. Mongolia might think that it cleverly was making use of China and Russia to advance its own interests, but it was evident that these two big powers in the early twentieth century had their own agendas for holding their private negotiations on Mongolia’s sovereignty. In short, the Russo-Japanese Secret Treaty and the Russo-Chinese cooperation as their outcome, served to deny Mongolian independence and sovereignty. As the pawn of imperialistic geopolitics, Mongolia had to bear the result of the Russian-Japanese-Chinese conspiracy and cooperation over its independence and sovereignty and try to barely survived on the edge of the balance of power.