광해군 시대의 군사전략

장성진 육군사관학교 화랑대연구소 2011 한국군사학논집 Vol.67 No.1

In the era of King Kwanghaegun in the Joseon Dynasty going through the period of transition from ImJin War(倭亂) into Invasion of the Qing Dynasty (胡亂), the Joseon Dynasty has been trying to prevent and deter a war with Qing(淸, 後金). The purpose of this thesis is to study the military strategy of King Kwanghaegun and to evaluate the effectiveness of the strategy. To achieve this goal, I analyze the components of the military strategy of this era,that is weapon, tactics, and defense system and evaluate the derived military strategy. In the terms of weapon and tactics, the Joseon Dynasty strived to reorganize and redevised the army with 『Jixiao-Xinshe(紀效書)』written by Qi, ji-Gunag (戚繼光), in order to prepare for the invasion of the Qing. For examples, there were skill trainings on the anti-cavalry weapons, tactics had moved from war-mobiles, infantry, cavalry, and firearms. But these weapon and tactics couldn't successfully executed, so supplemented by the Defense System(關防). The goal of defense system was to return to the Garrison Administrative System(鎭管體制) and this goal couldn't work because of the shortage in the troops, budget, technology and time. Before the battle of Simha(深河), Joseon propelled the sequential defense fort in the key terrain focus of river and hill. After the battle, Joseon propelled the showdown on the capital-area not the sequential defense. That is, Kwanghaegun tried to protect the leadership(保障處) and thus install four independence military defense facilities(防禦營) in Gyeonggi-do. The military strategy of the King Kwanghaegun was passive defensive strategy(守勢戰略) which used the weapon, tactics and defense system. The features of this era include the same aim of the strategy, that is the return of the Garrison Administrative System(鎭管體制) and the pursuit of the strategy based on the threats and capability. But this strategy had two limits. This passive defensive strategy couldn't control or prevent the expansion of the Qing's power. And in the strategy, the military wasn't in line with politics and diplomacy.

THE ROLE OF INNOVATION CAPABILITY ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRODUCT STRATEGY AND EXPORT PERFORMANCE: A CROSSNATIONAL STUDY OF KOREAN AND JAPANESE FIRMS

Insik Jeong,Jong-Ho Lee,Eunmi Kim 글로벌지식마케팅경영학회 2018 Global Marketing Conference Vol.2018 No.07

Introduction The trade-off between cost leadership strategy and differentiation strategy is of importance and presents a key challenge to exporters because it is intrinsically related to innovation (Gebauer, 2008; O’Cass et al., 2014). Nevertheless, resources are limited, and firms must make choices in their allocation and determine the extent to which they will emphasize one strategy over another (Danneels, 2007; Lant, Milliken, & Batra, 1992). Although the individual roles of product strategies or innovation capabilities on export performance have attracted considerable attention (e.g., Hortinha, Lages, & Lages, 2011; Lages, Silva, & Styles, 2009), few studies have assessed their integrating impact - that is, the difference in the strengths of the relationships between cost leadership or differentiation strategy and innovation. Drawing on resource based view, we examine how innovation capabilities related with the relationship between cost leadership and differentiation strategies and exporters’ performance. Thus, we consider the moderating role of two distinct capabilities - exploratory innovation and exploitative innovation - on the relationships between product strategies and export performance. Exploratory innovation includes activities aimed to enter new product-market domains, while exploitative innovation activities improve existing product-market domains (He & Wong, 2004). The objectives of this study are to explore (1) impacts of cost leadership strategy and differentiation strategy on export performance, (2) moderating effects of exploitative and exploratory innovation capability on the relationship between product strategy and export performance, and (3) these relationships in the context of a comparison of Korean and Japanese exporters. Most empirical research about product strategy and innovation capability has been conducted in Western-based context. This means that managers operating in non-Western business environments have only Western-based empirical evidence to help them develop strategies for managing levels of market orientation in their international businesses. However, non-Western business cultures may be different from those found in Western firms, and therefore generalizing studies of exporting behavior from Western to non-Western business contexts may be misleading. Indeed, it is noted that there is a need for more studies into the transferability of Western research to the Asian business setting (Ambler, Styles, & Xiucun, 1999). Thus, in order to fill this imbalance, the purpose of this study is to attempt to investigate product strategy and innovation capability of Korean and Japanese firms in international markets. Conceptual background Porter (1980) argues that a firm can achieve a higher level of performance over a rival in one of two ways: either it can supply an identical product or service at a lower cost, or it can supply a product or service that is differentiated in such a way that the customer is willing to pay a price premium that exceeds the additional cost of the differentiation. A cost leadership strategy is designed to produce goods or services more cheaply than competitors by stressing efficient scale of operation. When a firm designs, produces, and sells a comparable product more efficiently than its competitors as well as its market scope is industry-wide, it means that the firm is carrying out the cost leadership strategy successfully (Campbell-Hunt, 2000). Thus, the primary thing for a firm seeking competitively valuable way by reducing cost is to concentrate on maintaining efficiency through all activities in order to effectively control every expense and find new sources of potential cost reduction (Dess & Davis, 1984). The differentiation strategy provides value to customers with the unique attributes or perceptions of uniqueness, and characteristics of a firm’s product other than cost. The firm pursuing differentiation seeks to be unique in its industry along some dimension that is valued by customers, which means investing in product R&D and marketing (Porter, 1980). Rather than cost reduction, a firm using the differentiation needs to concentrate on investing in and developing such things that are distinguishable and customers will perceive (Gebauer, 2008). Overall, the essential success factor of differentiation in terms of strategy implementation is to develop and maintain innovativeness, creativeness, and organizational learning within a firm (Dess & Davis, 1984; O’Cass et al., 2014; Porter, 1985). A firm’s ability to compete in the long term may lie in its ability to integrate product strategy and its existing capabilities, while at the same time developing fundamentally new ones (Lavie & Rosenkopf, 2006). Simultaneous investments in the exploitation of existing product innovation capabilities and the exploration of new ones may help create a competitive advantage (Soosay & Hyland, 2008). Organizational learning represents the development of knowledge that influences behavioral changes and leads to enhanced performance (Crossan, Lane, & White, 1999; Fiol & Lyles, 1985). Product innovation is a tool for organizational learning and, thus, a primary means of achieving its strategic renewal (Danneels, 2002; Dougherty, 1992; O’Cass et al., 2014). Exploration pertains more to new knowledge - such as the search for new products, ideas, markets, or relationships; experimentation; risk taking; and discovery - while exploitation pertains more to using the existing knowledge and refining what already exists; it includes adaptation, efficiency, and execution (March, 1991). Exploration and exploitation compete for the same resources and efforts in the firm. With a focus on exploring potentially valuable future opportunities, the firm decreases activities linked to improving existing competences (Levinthal & March, 1993; March, 1991). In contrast, with a focus on exploiting existing products and processes, the firm reduces development of new opportunities. However, firms must develop both exploratory and exploitative capabilities because returns from exploration are uncertain, often negative, and attained over the long run, while exploitation generates more positive, proximate, and predictable returns (Levinthal & March, 1993; March, 1991; ?zsomer & Gen?t?rk, 2003). Researchers haveshown that both types of learning are essential to enhancing firm performance (Leonard-Barton, 1992; March, 1991). In this study, we use exploration and exploitation to describe two innovation-related capabilities that are critical elements on the relationship between product strategies and export performance. Hypotheses A firm that successfully pursues a cost leadership strategy emphasizes “aggressive construction of efficient-scale facilities, vigorous pursuit of cost reductions from experience, tight cost and overhead control, avoidance of marginal customer accounts, and cost minimization in areas like R&D, service, sales force, advertising, and so on” (Porter, 1980: 35). In addition, with a cost leadership strategy, firms focus on reducing costs through operational efficiency. The associated positional advantage is a cost advantage pertaining to the firms’ value offering and is based on the product’s price–perceived value proposition in the export market. On the other hand, a firm that pursues a differentiation strategy may attempt to create a unique image in the minds of customers that its products are superior to those of its competitors (Miller, 1988). Moreover, a firm may pursue a differentiation strategy by creating a perception in the minds of customers that its products possess characteristics that are unique from those of its competitors in terms of differences in design, physical attributes/features, and durability (Gebauer, 2008). Differentiation strategy aims to generate more outwardly focused product innovations that offer customers product differences that shape a distinctive value offering that is more responsive to their needs (Hughes, Martin, Morgan, & Robson, 2010; O’Cass et al., 2014). The associated positional advantage is a product or market differentiation advantage pertaining to the superior brand, quality, design, and product features that differentiate the firms’ value proposition from its competitors in the export market. Firms that position their products in a manner that co-aligns with their “home country competitive advantages” will, on average, tend to perform better than those that do not. The impact of home-country advantages is lessening over time as firms develop firm-specific global core competencies to replace home-country advantages. The corporate climate in Japanese firms is characterized by worker participation and long term employment. These factors not only tend to increase costs, but also may have a positive effect on product quality through better employee motivation and more knowledgeable workers. Japanese firms have the highest labor and taxation costs and a demand base that is more quality than price sensitive. This creates a home-country environment that favors higher quality. Therefore, Japanese firms most easily achieved a strategic fit with their home country business environment by pursuing a differentiation strategy. On the other hand, Korean firms tend to focus innovation on small, incremental improvements in process and product development, exploiting experience effects. Over time, this focus results in higher quality for Korean products and lower costs, thus creating the potential for Korean firms to use a cost leadership strategy. Moreover, Korea’s capital markets (which offer inexpensive capital below short-term market rates), a demand base that is price sensitive, and the Korean corporate culture’s emphasis on low prices all contribute to an environment favoring lower cost and lower price strategy. Hypothesis 1: Cost leadership strategy pursued by Korean firms is positively associated with export performance, compared to Japanese firms. Hypothesis 2: Differentiation strategy pursued by Japanese firms is positively associated with export performance, compared to Korean firms. From the generation of new ideas through to the launch of a new product, exploration and exploitation play a vital role in product innovation (Rothaermel & Deeds, 2004). Organizations can decide to use existing organizational competences to realize short-term results, or create new competences that may foster the development of innovations in the longer term (Atuahene-Gima, 2005). Both types of capabilities are considered to be dynamic in nature (Winter, 2003), given that their purpose is to transform existing resources into new functional competences that provide a better match for the firm's environment (Voss, Sirdeshmukh, & Voss, 2008). Although both exploitative and exploratory capabilities related to cost leadership and differentiation strategies, because of those different roles of capabilities in innovation process, the effects of those innovation capabilities on the relationship between product strategy and export performance might be different. In case of cost leadership strategy, firms focus on using and developing existing capabilities, promoting improvements in existing components and building on existing technological elements (Benner & Tushman, 2003; Rust et al., 2002). Similarly, exploitative innovation is aimed at improving existing product-market domains. The cost leadership strategy creates value through existing competences or competences that have been slightly modified (Voss et al., 2008). It promotes a routine-based and repetitive approach to organizational changes (Rust et al., 2002). Because exploitative innovation builds on existing knowledge and extends existing products and services for existing customers (Soosay & Hyland, 2008), exploitative capabilities helps firms pursuing cost leadership strategy to reap the benefits of improvement they make to their products and to continue making incremental improvements (Brucks, Zeithaml, & Naylor, 2000), which are designed to allow the firm to continue its superior performance (Griffin, 1997). Compared to cost leadership strategy, differentiation strategy is characterized by radical change, risk and experimentation and that allows for the creation of new methods, relationships, and products. Because exploration focuses mainly on trying to create variety, to adapt and hence exploit ever-decreasing windows of opportunity (Soosay & Hyland, 2008), this capability is more beneficial to the kind of product innovativeness to the firm (Augusto & Coelho, 2009). When exporters pursue differentiation strategy for acquiring new knowledge and developing new products and services, exploratory capability helps to engage new insight into the design of new features and benefits of a given product, that product is guaranteed to contain new ideas (Cho & Pucik, 2005; Yalcinkaya et al., 2007). In contrast with exploitation aimed at improving existing product-market domains, explorative innovation requires fundamental changes in the way an organization operates and represents a clear departure from existing practices (Menguc & Auh, 2006). Hypothesis 3: Exploitative innovation capability moderates the relationship between cost leadership strategy and export performance positively. Hypothesis 4: Exploratory innovation capability moderates the relationship between differentiation strategy and export performance positively. Results This study conducted survey data from Korean and Japanese exporters, regarding to product strategy, innovation capability, and export performance. 223 usable questionnaires were obtained in Korea, and 124 usable questionnaires were obtained in Japan. With regard to number of years of international experience, international experience averaged 15 (S.D. = 23.54) for Korean samples and 37.95 (S.D. = 21.90) for Japanese samples. In addition, export intensity by total sales over exporting sales averaged 15 (S.D. = 23.54) for Korean samples and 36.91 (S.D. = 26.15) for Japanese samples. Using survey data from Korean and Japanese exporters, the findings indicate that cost leadership strategy enhance export performance for Korean firms. On the other hand, for Japanese firms, differentiation strategy is more related on export performance positively. Moreover, exploitative innovation capability strengthens the relationship between cost leadership strategy and export performance, while exploratory innovation capability enhances the link between differentiation strategy and export performance for both Korean and Japanese firms. Discussion Focusing on product strategy through the application of the RBV has provided theoretical insights as well as empirical evidence as to which capabilities are required to achieve these critical product strategy outcomes. The support from this study provides further evidence of the usefulness of applying the RBV to the export setting and should encourage researchers to examine the other aspects of export strategy. Based on organizational learning perspective, in addition, this study found that exploratory and exploitative innovation capability are essential to the firm because they act as vehicles for renewing product strategy to achieve superior export performance. By considering product strategy with exploration and exploitation simultaneously, we present a new perspective of the roles of these product strategies in the development of firms’ innovation capabilities. Our results indicate that cost leadership and differentiation strategy are pivotal in ensuring a proper balance between exploratory and exploitative innovations. Furthermore, this study found that different effects of product strategies on export performance in line with home country competitive advantages. Understanding the nature of marketing strategies employed by Korean and Japanese firms as well as its different effects may provide a useful reference point for exporters from other emerging countries in Asia. One of the main implications for managers is that both exploratory and exploitative product competences should consider in parallel when developing product strategy. The findings underscore the need for managers to invest in cost leadership and differentiation strategy to ensure the development of exploration and exploitation. Therefore, resource allocation decisions should, consider the firm's needs for innovation capabilities and, on the other hand, be guided by the firm’s product strategy. Exporters operate in highly complex environments, characterized by high levels of technological and market uncertainties and highly diverse and dispersed customers (Kleinschmidt et al., 2007; Mohr & Sarin, 2009). Therefore, in addition to the product strategy toward the development of innovations using state-of-the-art technologies, managers of these firms need a similarly strong focus on understanding both current and potential exporting markets. By acknowledging the need for product strategy, managers can ensure the balanced innovation capabilities.

미국과 중국의 패권전략이 한국 안보에 미치는 영향 - 미어셰이머의 공격적 현실주의 이론을 중심으로 -

장요한 ( Jang Yo-han ),박효선 ( Park Hyo-sun ) 한국군사학회 2020 군사논단 Vol.101 No.-

The international security situation has changed dramatically in recent years. The international hegemonic order by the United States, which has been maintained since the end of the Cold War, is facing a shift from the U.S. and China to the G2 era due to China’s rapid growth. While the U.S. national power has declined relatively due to the 2001 terrorist attacks and the 2008 financial crisis, the successful hosting of the 2008 Beijing Olympics and the leap to become the second largest economy in 2010 marked the rise of China. Under the threat, the U.S. has begun to recognize China as a challenge to hegemony, and plans to prevent China’s rise from being held in check. On the other hand, China seeks to regain its status as a once splendid hegemonic power by expanding its dominance into the Asia-Pacific region based on economic revival and modernized military power. This study analyzed tie hegemony strategies of the U.S. and China from the perspective of Mearsheimer’s Offensive Realism. First, this study will divide his theory into hegemony and strategy, explain the theoretical concepts, and try to restructure his theory to apply it to this study. Through this process of theoretical reconstruction, this study will analyze the hegemony strategies of the U.S. and China from the perspective of Mearsheimei’s Offensive Realism. The U.S. hegemony strategy will present the Peace through Strength Strategy,the Joint Operational Access Concept Strategy and the Diamond Strategy, and China’s hegemony strategy will be analyzed by dividing it into the Dream of a Powerful Military Strategy, the Island Chain Strategy and the String of Pearls Strategy. Then, if the U.S. and China’s hegemony strategy are strongly expressed, this study want to predict the possibility of a military clash between the U.S. and China. As a result, this study will analyze the hegemony strategies of the U.S. and China &om the perspective of Mearsheimer’s Offensive Realism,proving the suitability of the Mearsheimer’s theory, and suggesting that Korea’s military strategy should move forward.

한국군 군사전략의 역할과 전략구상에 대한 담론

오순근,공형준 한국국방연구원 2018 국방정책연구 Vol.34 No.4

The security environments in the Korean peninsula has been rapidly changing. Increase in the fog of uncertainty evidently requires the important role of military strategy in national security. That is because the role of strategy is to provide directions in midst of the uncertainty. So far there has been a low level of linkages between strategy and operation / force planning. Due to North Korea’s persistent military threat and repeated provocations, the military strategy - which requires a deep thinking and a long-term perspective - had difficulty in fully engaging with the operation and force planning processes. Thus both had developed their own independent territories outside of the influence of military strategy. Now is the time to revisit and reexamine the role, position, and function of military strategy as well as strategy planning process. This study suggests that the role of military strategy lies on all realm of government policies, not only security and defense arena, but also political, economy, societal, and cultural arena. This paper also defines the position and function of military strategy by explaining interaction between the horizontal evolution and the vertical diversification of military strategy. Lastly, the study underscores the importance of the three elements of military strategy in the planning process - ends, ways, and means - and how the interact with each other to develp valid strategic concepts.

Reading Strategy and Actual Performance : A Case Study of a Korean Student

Sang Kyo Lee 한국언어과학회 2013 언어과학 Vol.20 No.3

The purpose of this study is to investigate a L2 learner’s patterns of reading strategy use and the learner’s actual strategy use while reading English texts. Three methods were employed for data collection. The strategy checklist was used to figure out the participant’s awareness of strategy use; recall protocol was used to examine the participant’s actual strategy use; and the interview was carried out to find the participant’s perceptions of reading strategy use. The results revealed that the participant employed a wide range of three types of strategies(global reading strategy, problem-solving strategy, and support strategy). She used global reading strategy more frequently than the others. She used seven types of global reading strategy, five types of problem-solving strategy, and three types of support strategy. The results also showed that the participant’s self-awareness of strategy use well matched with her actual strategy use while reading.

Reading Test-taking Strategy Awareness and Strategy Use of EFL College Students

Seon-Yoo Hwang 한국중원언어학회 2017 언어학연구 Vol.0 No.44

The study examined whether there are some differences and how close the relationship between reading test-taking strategy awareness and strategy use of EFL college students across their English proficiency levels. Participants of the study were 57 students, 28 of whom were taking a TOEIC preparation course and received SBI(Strategy-based Instruction) during the course. As a comparison group, the rest of them are English education majors who have a higher level of English proficiency. The findings of the study showed that the less proficient students demonstrated a lower level of strategy awareness and strategy use over reasoning, guessing and managing strategy, even though trained and prepared for reading test situations through SBI. The more proficient students were likely to use reading test-taking strategies contributory to reading comprehension more frequently. Moreover, the more proficient group demonstrated a closer relationship between strategy awareness and strategy use than the less proficient group. The study suggests that strategy instruction be more focused on contributory strategies related with language learning.

북한의 특구전략과 군사전략의 상관성 연구 -전환기 경제와 안보의 복합적 위기관리-

이점호 ( Jeom Ho Lee ) 한국군사학회 2015 군사논단 Vol.84 No.-

North Korea had tried to overcome a crisis by continuing political and ideological control, even though the country had recognized its chronic inefficiency of centrally planned economy. However, the North has sought new national strategy with special economic zones, one of the major factors of market economy. Strengthening the regime and surmounting international isolation by attracting foreign capital, it has attempted strategy to restore its regime. In other words, the paper explains why the country has chosen the strategy to restore the regime by supporting military strategy through special economic zones. It has tried to stabilize the system and solve the contradiction of its economy system with the strategy in that period. Regarding political burden of the leaders as a minor factor, previous studies of the special economic zones only focus on economic efficiency. As a result, this paper analyses ‘political and military’ field which has not been important to solve the problem with new concept of the interrelationship of special economic zone and military strategy in ‘national strategy.’ The purpose of this thesis is to prove that leaders of North Korea have chosen special economic zones in the brink of extinction of the regime in the end of cold war era. The paper also proved that North Korea’s economic strategy is close correlation to the military strategy such as nuke. In conclusion, the purpose of the North’s special economic zone strategy is operating with subordinate mechanism to build a military force by solving its capital deficiency and underdevelopment. Therefore, the change of the economic strategy is not for the systemic transition but for reinforcing security by reinforcing its own system to restore socialistic economy.

A Study on the Diversification Strategy and Decentralization Strategy of SMEs

( Moon-jun Kim ) K·기업경영연구원 2021 KBM Journal(K Business Management Journal) Vol.5 No.2

This study tried to emphasize the importance of decision-making for the advancement of differentiated competitive strategies based on decentralization strategies rather than continuous diversification strategies and an approach based on dichotomous resolution of competitive strategies as the basic starting point for the organizational competitiveness of SMEs. In the sense of diversification of diversification strategy and competition strategy, this means the importance of re-establishing a plan to upgrade the sustainability management system through decentralization. Therefore, it is a decentralization strategy, which is the third variable that judges the level of various resources possessed in an organization based on diversification and competition strategies. In other words, the relationship between diversification strategy and resource holding, competition strategy and resource holding level is proven, and as a result, it should be determined as the main criterion through decentralization at the organizational and business division level according to the company's diversification strategy and resource holding level. In addition, for the sustainable management of the organization, it is considered as a decision-making method for the right decentralization strategy to consider various strategies, competitive strategies, and resource holding levels along with decision-making on decentralization through additional analysis. For sustainable management of SMEs, how to improve the interconnection between corporate-level research capability and business-level research execution capability is a key issue for corporate survival and growth. Therefore, this study emphasized that the various strategic activities carried out by a company should be executed in a complex and closely interconnected relationship with both the company level factors and the level factors for each business division.

한국 기업의 경영전략과 지식경영전략의 적합성에 따른 지식경영 성과 차이

설현도 한일경상학회 2013 韓日經商論集 Vol.58 No.-

The purpose of this study is to investigate differences in knowledge management performance by the fitness between competitive strategy and knowledge management strategy of firms in Korea. The type of competitive strategy and knowledge management strategy are derived from empirical analysis for 79 Korean firms that implemented the knowledge management. The study examined the relationship and fitness between competitive strategy and knowledge management strategy through review of the existing theory and investigated the differences of knowledge management performance by the fitness. The empirical results showed as follow. First, the competitive strategy and knowledge management strategy showed significant association. Second, the result showed significant differences in knowledge management performance by the fitness between competitive strategy and knowledge management strategy. Specifically, the companies that take dynamic strategy in the simultaneous pursuit of differentiation and cost-leadership strategy showed high performance. And the companies that take system strategy in the cost-leadership strategy showed high performance. However, the relationship between differentiation strategy and knowledge management strategy was not statistically significant. These results imply that firms have to formulate and implement appropriate knowledge management strategy that consistent with competitive strategy.

레이건 행정부의 대소련 전략(1981-1985)과트럼프 행정부의 대중국 전략(2017-2021) 비교연구: 대전략의 관점에서

유나영 (사) 한국전략문제연구소 2023 전략연구 Vol.30 No.1

The Trump administration's strategies toward China and the Reagan administration's strategies toward the Soviet Union are significant in showing the transformation of America's hegemonic strategy. Therefore, this study compared Reagan's Soviet Union Strategy to Trump's China strategy with the critical official documents of the United States, dividing the strategy of the military, economic, and political system from the perspective of the grand strategy. As a result, Reagan Administration used an aggressive military strategy with alliances, an indirect retaliation economic one related to national security, and a political system strategy that encouraged liberal democracy. In the case of the Trump administration, they did a robust military strategy, a direct trade retaliation against China based on illiberal hegemony. However, they shifted their political system strategy from an appeasement approach to a more stubborn one. 레이건 행정부의 대 소련전략과 트럼프 행정부의 대중국전략은 미국 패권전략의 변화를 볼 수 있다는 측면에서 매우 중요하다. 따라서 이 연구는 미국 주요 문서를 중심으로 1981년부터 1985년까지 레이건 행정부의 대소전략과 2017년부터 2021년까지 트럼프 행정부의 대중전략을 대전략의 관점에서 군사, 경제, 정치체제 부문으로 나누어 비교하였다. 연구결과, 레이건 행정부는 봉쇄전략이라는 대전략의 원칙하 공세적 군사전략, 유럽을 통한 간접보복 방식의 경제 전략, 자유 민주주의 독려 전략을 시행하였다. 트럼프 행정부의 경우 비자유 패권주의라는 대전략의 전제하에 중국에 대한 공격적인 군사전략, 직접 무역보복 전략을 행하였다. 그러나 정치체제 부문의 전략에 있어서는 초기 유화책에서 강경책으로 선회하였다.