만주농업이민 정책을 둘러싼 관동군・조선총독부의 대립과 그 귀결 - 우가키(宇垣) 총독의 구상 및 활동과 관련하여 -

임성모 일본사학회 2009 일본역사연구 Vol.29 No.-

This article investigates the conflict between the Kwantung Army(KA) and the Korean Government General(KGG) over the Manchurian agricultural emigration policy in 1930s. After the Manchurian incident, KA and the Japanese department of settlement planned the emigration of the Japanese farmers in grand scale. On the other, the emigration plan of the Korean peasants to Manchuria was built by KGG. There were three points of conflict between the two. First, who are the main counterpart of the emigration plan, Japanese or Korean? Second, what is the status of the Korean peasants, tenant or owner? Third, how to manage the emigrant organization, united or independent? Before 1934, while KA reenforced to send the 1st and 2nd Japanese armed emigrants, KGG concentrated her energy to build strategic hamlets. And Ugaki Kazushige, the governor-general of Korea, negotiated actively with senior officials of the Japanese government and Manchukuo about the emigration plan of the Korean peasants. In this situation, the blowup of the Turoongsan incident made the policy of KA enabled, and deepening troubles by the Korean labors in Japan gave the better circumstance to KGG. Finally, the emigration policy of KGG was accomplished in somewhat changed form at 1936. That is, the Japanese and Korean emigration in owner-centered form was established as the fundamental principle of Manchurian agricultural emigration. It was the retreat of the policy of KA to suppress the Korean emigration to Manchuria. Ugaki's political position and his active personality made this process more easily.

19세기 아일랜드인들의 영국 이주 원인과 양상

남철호 ( Nam Cheol-ho ) 역사교육학회 2016 역사교육논집 Vol.60 No.-

This theme focused on the Irish emigration causes, aspects and employment in the 19th century British society. Irish migration to Britain has a long and chequered history, yet only in recent years have historians examined this subject in depth. Indeed, between 1820 and 1910 nearly 5 million people left Ireland for destination in Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United States of America. I have three results in this study. Firstly, there are many reasons to make emigration from Ireland. The classic explanation held that Irish emigration was largely the consequence of a mounting Irish economic crisis of Malthusian. The revisionists rebutted this view. I have followed the revisionist``s views. Emigration was also an increasingly rational alternative to the hardships of life in Ireland. Much Irish emigration resulted from the prospect of relatively well-paid employment in the industrialised economics of Britain. In many respects, the Great Famine served as a catalyst for these process. It was very interesting that the Irish emigration to the Britain of 19th century was a temporary emigration for going to the another country. Secondly, the Irish migration route was three. These features of migration are ``step-wise migration,`` ``seasonal settlement,`` and ``long emigration. The ultimate destinations of Irish migrants in British towns and cities were determined by economic and cultural criteria related to their regional origins in Ireland or by the ports of embarkation. Lastly, the Irish immigrants worked very different fields, on the land, of the urban occupations, and in the army. They have played a great role in the history of trade union, and women``s history. Research for the Irish``s 19th century migration to the Britain has been limited mainly Famine period, Chartism, and Irish self-government problem. In these reason, we can``t review the variety of aspects of the Irish emigration in the 19th century Britain in Korea. I hope that this theme is expected to be able to contribute a little bit to that possibility.

일본 殖民協會의 식민 활동과 해외이주론

최혜주 숭실사학회 2013 숭실사학 Vol.0 No.30

식민협회는 외무대신을 지낸 에노모토 다케아키(榎本武揚)가 이주 식민을 일본의 國是로 내걸고 식민사업의 거점을 확보하기 위해 1893년에 설립한 아시아주의 단체이다. 협회의 운영은 代議士, 외무성 관료, 실업가, 학자, 언론인 등 평의원 28명을 중심으로 이루어졌다. 식민협회에서 한 활동은 이민회사 설립과 항로확장 추진, 탐험대 파견과 강연회 개최, 일간지에 이민론 소개, 제국의회에 건의안 제출, 식민사상과 식민교육 보급, 식민 상담회 개최, 잡지 출판 등을 통해 해외이주의 중요성을 계몽하는 일이었다. 식민협회의 잡지인『殖民協會報告』와『殖民時報』에 나타난 일본인의 해외이주 문제에 대한 인식은 다음과 같다. 첫째, 식민급무론. 식민협회가 식민이 시급하다고 본 이유는 급격히 증가하는 일본인의 인구배출과 식량문제를 해결하고, 청일전쟁 후 전후경영을 위한 팽창주의를 추진하며, 열강과의 각축 속에서 생존경쟁을 위한 국가사업을 추진하기 위해서라고 보았다. 둘째, 식민정략론. 식민협회는 일본인은 애국심이 강하지만 대외사업에는 냉담하다고 인식하였다. 식민정략으로 중요한 것은 이주의 순서와 방침, 이주지의 선정문제다. 그리고 이민을 영구목적으로 하고 일본이 열강과 경쟁하려면 海上權과 商權을 가져야 하며, 일본의 식민정책은 “영국의 식민지를 빼앗아 五大洲를 마음대로 할 수 있을 정도여야 한다”고 주장하였다. 셋째, 조선이주론. 쓰네야 세이후쿠(恒屋盛服)는 일본이 조선으로 이주 식민이 필요한 이유는 역사상 “두 나라가 인종이 동일하고 언어풍속과 생활상태가 비슷한 식민의 관계를 갖기 때문”이라고 말한다. 또한 일본상인이 조선에서 힘써야 하는 것은 항해무역이 아닌 내지행상이라고 보았다. 그는 조선에 이주 식민을 하기 위해서 가장 필요한 것은 이민을 지도할 ‘토지주선회사’를 만드는 일이고, 이주안내서를 간행하여 토지를 대량으로 구매해야 한다고 주장하였다. 청일전쟁 이후 식민협회는 물론 당시 일본 언론들의 조선이주에 대한 관심은 열강이나 러시아의 움직임을 경계하는 데서 나왔다. 이를 위해 다수의 일본인을 조선에 이주시켜 식산공업에 종사하게 하고 부원을 개척하는 일이 중요하다고 보았다. The Japanese Colonial Association, the extend of the Continent of Asia, was established in 1893 by Enomoto Takeaki who was foreign minister in oder to secure foothold for colonial enterprise putting up state policy of colonial emigration. The operation of association was conducted by 28 councils involving deputies, bureaucrats of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, businessmen, scholars, journalists. Its activities was to establish a emigration company and extend the sea routs, to dispatch an expedition and hold lecture and skull session, to introduce immigration theory in daily newspaper and submit a proposition, to propagate colonial thought and education and enlighten the public to recognize the importance of moving overseas through publishing a magazine. In the Report on Japanese Colonial Association and Colonial Time Signal published by Japanese Colonial Association, there were several issues of Japanese immigration. The first was ‘the theory of colonial matter requiring immediate attention’. The reason for that they regarded the immigration as burning problem was to solve the problems of population growth and a food shortage and carry forward a plan of expansionism for the post-war management after the Sino-Japanese War and of state enterprise of struggle for existence in the situation of competing powers. Secondly, it was ‘the theory of colonial political strategy’. The Japanese Colonial Association recognized that Japanese has strong patriotism but apathy towards businesses abroad. Most importantly, as a colonial political strategy, it was the order and direction of emigration and the problem of selection of settlement. To aim at emigration as an eternal objective and compete against powers, Japan had to rule the sea and gain commercial supremacy, and claimed that the colonial strategy of Japan was to seize colonise from English and controled the Five Continents under the Japanese will. Thirdly, it was ‘the theory of emigration to Korea’. Tsuneya Seihuku claimed that “the race of two nations is not only historically same but the life-style such as language and custom is similar” is the reason for the need for Japanese emigration into Korea. Moreover, Japanese merchants strove for internal peddling in Korea not sailing trade. What it need most for colonial emigration, he argued, is to establish ‘Land Arranging Company’ to guide emigration, and to make quantity of land purchases through publishing a guidebook. After the Sino-Japanese War, the concern of Japanese press, as well as Japanese Colonial Association, with emigration to Korean arose from keeping their eye on the movement of powers or Russia. To achieve this, it became important to transplant a great number of Japanese to Korea and to engage in the productive industry to develop a source of wealth.

삼국시대의 이주와 생활 유형

홍보식 한국고고학회 2013 한국고고학보 Vol.87 No.-

This study suggests objective guidelines for the identification of emigration. In order to do so, archaeological features (such as tombs and dwellings) and artifacts from the Yeongnam region, dating to the Three Kingdoms period,that have been excavated up to now were analyzed. The artifact and feature assemblages that could clearly be distinguished as being different from other assemblages of the region were then identified and their place of origin was presumed. The emigration of groups within a single political entity was identified, as was the emigration of groups from an different political entity. It was possible to identify some examples in which the emigrant’s (or the emigrant group’s) willingness to move to a new home could be assumed, as in the case of the emigration of Baekje and Japanese people to the Gaya territories or the emigration of Japanese people to the Yeongsan River region. However,emigration within Silla society was initiated in many cases by national authority,regardless of the emigrant’s willingness. In particular, it was surmised that in order to encourage stability within territories newly occupied during the late sixth century, when Silla was rapidly expanding into foreign territories, those who lived in the kingdom’s capital were sent to the occupied territories or the people of the occupied territories were sent to other places. Silla also maintained a policy of treating emigrant Goguryeo communities more favorably than Gaya communities.

19세기 후반 중국인 쿨리 해외이주의 개념과 방식

정영구 명청사학회 2017 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.48

A study about Coolie trade have been studied by lots of Chinese emigration researcher, and many achievement were published. But unexpectedly very basic problem have not yet solved. The biggest question lying before this subject defines a concept and range of coolie trade. Some nonchinese researchers as P. C. Cambell assured that coolie trade occurred from 1845 to 1874, and another emigrations except it were voluntary emigrations even if sometimes there were illegal activities. On the other hand, lots of Chinese researchers classified almost Chinese emigrations like coolie trade, southeast asia emigrations and the Atlantic emigrations in second half of 19C, as involuntary emigrations. By the way in the Chinese researchers, there are three group. One marks coolie trade and southeast emigrations down as involuntary emigrations, the other marks coolie trade and the Atlantic emigrations down as involuntary emigrations, another marks all down as involuntary emigrations. Therefore we need a definite concept about Chinese emigration at this period. To do this, we have to defines term of piggy(猪仔) and coolie(苦力). Wu feng-bin(吳鳳斌) assured that they were same term but Peng jia-li(彭家禮) assert that they were definitely different things. And coolie that means Chinese labour in English was translate into piggy(猪仔), coolie(苦力), new passenger(新客) and contract labour(契約華工) that have different means in a cultural area of Chinese character. Besides, the terms what explain coolie, ‘Contract Labour’ and ‘Indentured Labour’ sometimes were used different meaning in a cultural area of Chinese character. Thus if term and concept of it were not defined, studies of Chinese emigration in 19C would meet with a difficulty. This research considers publications about coolie, classifies Chinese emigration, and defined concept and form of Chinese coolie emigration in 19th century.

해항도시 부산의 일본인 이주어촌 건설과정과 그 현황

김승(Kim Seung) 부산경남사학회 2010 역사와 경계 Vol.75 No.-

This article analyzes Japanese emigration fishing villages in Busan area in the early 20th century. First, it is to show the types of settlements and presents the categorizations of their types of management. Most of the Japanese villages in Busan were built for three years(1906-1908) excepting Jeolyoung-Do which had been built in 1897. The types of settlements were divided into three category like Natural Emigration(Jeolyoung-Do), Assistance Emigration(Yongdang, Hadan, Dadeapho), Mixed Type of the Two. The last one started as Natural type but transformed into Assistance one. But the Japanese villages in Busan in the colonial era could be categorized on the type of management as follows. First, the type of management on a base. This type had a solid economic bases and showed the consumerism like an urban area. Deabuyn and Jeolyoung-Do were included in this type. Second the type of half peasant & half fishing. This type of villages like Youndang accommodated Japanese people emigrated through the Dongchuck. Third, the type of shipowner. This type had a special managerial structure like that the shipowner rent ships and fishing tools to fishers for appropriating certain fishes. The villages like Hadan having a tendency of business were included in this type. Second, the currents where the Japanese were from. The followings are the high rankings of region of the emigrated from first to fifth in 1921: ① Hiroshima 15.90%(734 emigrants), ② Nagasaki 13.76%(635 emigrants), ③ Yamaguchi 13.65%(630 emigrants), ④ Okayama 8.92%(412 emigrants), ⑤ Fukuoka 4.76%(220, emigrants). The ratio of these high ranking regions is 57.02%(2,631 emigrants) of total emigrants in those villages and the people from Hiroshima were far in the lead. The component of the emigrated in each villages is as follows. ① In Deabuyn, both of the people from Fukuoka and Ehime represented 34.21%. ② In Youndang, most of the villagers were from Yamaguchi(46%) and Ohita(44%). ③ In Jeolyoung-Do, the people from four regions as Hiroshima(17.27%), Nagasaki(14.59%), Yamaguchi(13.85%) and Okayama(8.21%) represented more than half, 53.92%. ④ In Hadan, the order is like this; Okayama (37.93%), Gumamoto(15.51%), Nagasaki(11.49%). ⑤ In Dadea-Po, the majorities were from Fukuoka. Third, the fishing activities of both of the local residents and the Japanese. The Korean fishermen in Busan caught herrings and cods chiefly with a gill net or an Earjeon fishery way. On the contrary, Japanese mainly fished anchovies with Jieymang and herrings with tri-angular set net or pound net. But in 1921, the main fishes in Daebuyn were Japanish spanish, see eel, mackerel; in Yongdang, anchovy, snapper, squid, perch ; in Jeolyoung-Do, twenty kinds of fishes including mackerel, Japanish spanish; In Hadan, eels and carps. The eels caught in Hadan were exported to Manju. Fourth, the relationship between the people in Busan and the emigrated. Two people not only made joint ventures like youth and adult groups or cooperatives but also fished in cooperations with each other. So Korean were not exploited or plundered unilaterally by Japanese settlers but both of them had good relationships with each other in pursuit of common interests on the ground of "reasonable contract and agreement"

19세기 전반 영제국 식민지 오스트레일리아로의 이민과 이민여정의 사회상

이민경 한국서양사학회 2019 西洋史論 Vol.0 No.141

본 연구는 19세기 전반 영국인들의 식민지 오스트레일리아 이민증가의 직접적 주체인 ‘이민자들’에 주목하면서 ‘이민의 실행’이란 관점에서 이 시기 이민에 대한 인식과 현황을 고찰해보고자 하는 시도이다. 우선 본 연구는 영국사회 및 식민지 상황에 부합하는 정책 방향이 이민의 확장뿐만 아니라 이민자의 특성 형성에도 영향을 준 사실을 확인한다. 특히 이민의 가속화에 중요한 영향을 미친 정부원조 이민이 ‘식민지 사회발전’이라는 목적과 젠트리 계급성 이식을 통한 ‘영국식 식민지 사회의 형성’, 나아가 제국의 일꾼을 조달함으로써 ‘견고한 영제국 건설’을 실천하는 것이었음을 밝힌다. 이와 더불어 실질적인 이민 정책의 대상이자 실행 주체였던 이민자들의 항해여정을 탐구한 결과, 본 연구는 이민자들을 위한 선상의 내부적 공간 배치와 생활상이 이민자들의 모국인 영국과 유사한 사회 생활상을 구현하고 있음을 발견한다. 그럼에도 불구하고 이 시기 이민의 증가 현상은 식민지 사회구조를 변경시킬 수 있는 이민자들의 능동적인 가치와 미래 식민지 역사의 토대가 무엇이었는지를 증명한다고 강조한다. This study tries to examine the perception and situation surrounding the British emigration in the first half of the 19th century from the perspective of ‘execution of emigration’. Consequently, it focuses on ‘emigrants’ who are the direct executives of British emigration to the colonial Australia. First of all, this study confirms that the policy direction in line with the colonial situation in addition to the British society influenced not only the increase in immigration (from a UK perspective ‘emigration’) but also the classification of the immigrants. Particularly, it acknowledges that government aid, which played an important role in the acceleration of immigration in this period, was to perform ‘the development of the colonial society’ and ‘the formation of the British-like society’ through the gentry class transplantation. Besides, it establishes that through procuring empire workers, they were involved in ‘building a robust empire.’ Additionally, it explores the executing agency and the voyage of emigrants who were the objects of the actual immigration policy of the colony. Regarding the Australian colonies, it discovers that the layout of domestic space and the immigrant’s lifestyle had embodied the social life of immigrants same as in their home country. However, it emphasizes the fact that the phenomenon of immigration has currently witnessed the value of immigrants to change the structure of the colonial society and to establish the future of the colonial Australia.

근대 동아시아 공간의 중국인 이주—구조적 배경을 중심으로 —

박상수 고려대학교 역사연구소 2012 사총 Vol.75 No.-

Chinese emigration unprecedently increased since mid-19th century was triggered by modern environment newly formed in East Asian region. This article examines the structural background of the Chinese emigration in the modern times, focusing on four factors such as imperialism, modern treaty system, introduction of new type of transportation and communication, and native place and kinship networks. According to the author, the Chinese emigration in modern times was characterized by labor migration. This characteristics derived from the colonialist development strategy used by Western and Japanese imperialism. The treaty system provided the fast-growing emigration with legal basis: The extra-territoriality within the treaty ports was protective device for the illegal and inhumane Chinese coolie traders; Various treaties signed between China, Japan and Korea created favorable conditions for the emigres. Steamship navigation competitively introduced in East Asian waters made possible the massive and rapid transport of emigres who came to pay much more moderate fare than ever. New institution for remittance and delivery of letters, called Xinju, facilitated the possibility of the communication between native place and new settlement of emigres. The networks formed between emigres and their homefolks on the basis of the native place and kinship relations were 'pull factors' and a sort of ‘corridor’ through which people could make decision to emigrate. Author argues that all of the factors mentioned above closely interacted in East Asian region during the modern times and so formed a influential structure facilitating the Chinese emigration in the region.

내부망명자의 고독

한수영(Han Soo-yeong) 한국문학회 2012 韓國文學論叢 Vol.61 No.-

말년의 안수길을 지배하고 있던 것은 ‘망명의식’이었다는 것이 이 글의 커다란 전제다. 그는 실제로 망명을 시도한 적도 없었고, 망명을 결행할 만큼 노골적인 핍박을 받은 적도 없지만, 자신이 속해 있는 법적 국민국가인 ‘대한민국’에 대한 환멸과 부정, 혹은 애증(愛憎)의 복잡한 심경을 작품을 통해 암시해 오고 있었다. 그의 ‘망명의식’이 지닌 특징은, ‘망명’에 관한 ‘욕망’을 암시하면서도, 다른 한편으로는 그 ‘욕망’을 억누르는 ‘억압’의 기제를 스스로 제공하고 있다는 데 있다. 그런 점에서, 말년의 가작(佳作)임에도 불구하고 안수길의 작품 계보에서 그다지 주목받아 오지 않았던 단편 〈망명시인〉은, 작가의식의 표층과 심층, 그리고 그 사이의 균열과 단층을 들여다 볼 수 있는 매우 중요한 작품이다. 좀 더 흥미로운 사실은, 〈망명시인〉에서 노출되고 있는 작가의 ‘망명’에 관한 ‘욕망’과 ‘억압’은, 안수길의 작품 세계 안에서 오래 전부터 일정한 계보를 형성해 오고 있었다는 점이다. 그 계보는 전시기(戰時期)에 발표되었던 〈갱생기〉와 〈두 개의 발정(發程)〉에서 시작하여, 후기의 〈IRAQ에서 온 불온문서〉와 〈노부부〉, 〈삼인행〉까지 이어진다. 이 계보를 통해 확인되는 그의 ‘망명의식’은, 전시기나 전쟁 직후에는 주로 대한민국의 절대적인 빈곤이나 열악한 삶의 수준으로부터 벗어나고자 하는 소망과 연결되지만, 후기로 접어들면서, 분단의 고통이나 민주주의의 파탄과 같은 정치적 환경에 대한 비판의식과 더 밀접한 관련을 맺는다. 그의 작품 세계 전체를 가로지르는 ‘망명의식’의 계보를 거꾸로 거슬러 올라가면, 그 초입에서 우리는 작가 안수길의 ‘재만 경험’과 다시 조우하게 된다. 그의 개인사와 작가로서의 삶에 운명처럼 각인되어 있는 ‘이주’와 ‘정주’를 둘러싼 이 길고 힘든 여정이, ‘망명’을 둘러싼 그의 ‘욕망/억압’의 근원적 사건임을 재확인하게 되는 것이다. The premise of this paper is that the sense of emigraion was most important way of thinking in Ahn Su-gil’s late life. He was a kind of ‘inner emigrant’. Actually, he had never ever tried to emigrate to other country, also had not been oppressed to decide to escape from Korea. But, he always dreamed to escape to another country. We need to read carefully his last short story “망명시인An Emigrant Poet” to understand his sense of emigration. We can see the surface and deep structure of writer’s consciouness through that short story. There was a genealogy of desire for emigration in Ahn’s works. “갱생기A Rebirth”, “두 개의 발정 Two Beginning”, “IRAQ에서 온 불온문서Seditious Documents from IRAQ” belong to that genealogy. Ahn Su-gil’s sense of emigration originated in his life in Manchuria. In Manchuria, he had special experience which taught him the ‘outness’ and ‘otherness’. There are many Korean writers who had lived in Manchria in Japanese colonial era and returned after the end of the World War Ⅱ. But Ahn Su-gil is so unique that he showed us new horizon for description of Korean diaspora and settlement during the 20th century.

근대 동아시아 공간의 중국인 이주

박상수 ( Sang Soo Park ) 고려대학교 역사연구소 2012 사총 Vol.75 No.-

Chinese emigration unprecedently increased since mid-19th century was triggered by modern environment newly formed in East Asian region. This article examines the structural background of the Chinese emigration in the modem times, focusing 00 four factors such as imperialism, modern treaty system, introduction of new type of transportation and communication, and native place and kinship networks. According co the author, the Chinese emigration in modem times was characterized by labor migration. This characteristics derived from the colonialist development strategy used by Western and Japanese imperialism. The treaty system provided the fast-growing emigration with legal basis: The extra-territoriality within the treaty pores was protective device for the illegal and inhumane Chinese coolie traders; Various treaties signed between China, Japan and Korea created favorable conditions for the emigres. Steamship navigation competitively introduced in East Asian waters made possible the massive and rapid transport of emigres who came to pay much more moderate fare than ever. New institution for remittance and delivery of letters, called Xinju, facilitated the possibility of the communication between native place and new settlement of emigres. The networks formed between emigres and their homefolks on the basis of the native place and kinship relations were ``pull factors`` and a sort of ``corridor`` through which people could make decision to emigrate. Author argues that all of the factors mentioned above closely interacted in East Asian region during the modern times and so formed a influential structure facilitating the Chinese emigration in the region.