Wheat and Wheat-Derived Beverages: A Comprehensive Review of Technology, Sensory, Biological Activity, and Sustainability

Thinzar Aung,Mi Jeong Kim 한국식품영양과학회 2023 Preventive Nutrition and Food Science Vol.28 No.4

At present there is heightened demand for beverages that functionally improve human well-being. Wheat and wheat derivatives are excellent sources of nutrients and bioactive phytochemicals including phenolic compounds, dietary fiber, gamma amino butyric acid, and amino acids. Generally, wheat flour has been used extensively in baking and confectionery production, and wheat germ, and bran are byproducts that can be used to fortify some foods. However, limited attention has been paid to the use of wheat and wheat derivatives for beverage production. Our study therefore aimed to fill this gap by comprehensively exploring various aspects of wheat beverages. This review scrutinizes the use of wheat and wheat derivatives in beverage preparation, including processing methods, sensory perception, and biological properties, and also sheds light on the challenges and future perspectives of the wheat beverage industry. Our study offers valuable insight into the use of wheat for the design of functional, nonalcoholic plant-based beverages.

수확 연도별 우리밀과 수입밀의 품질 변이 비교

곽한섭(Han Sub Kwak),김태종(Tae Jong Kim),주은영(Eun Young Joo),차장헌(Jang Hun Cha),김아진(Ah Jin Kim),김미정(Mi Jeong Kim),김상숙(Sang Sook Kim) 한국식품영양과학회 2017 한국식품영양과학회지 Vol.46 No.1

2011년에서 2013년까지 국산 원맥 443점과 수입 원맥 160점의 품질 특성을 비교하였다. 수분 함량은 국산 원맥이 10.90~13.90%, 수입 원맥은 8.0~12.6%로 나타났다. 단백질 함량은 국산 원맥이 9.34~16.1%, 수입 원맥은 9.0~14.6% 범위에 있었다. 회분 함량은 국산 원맥이 1.28~1.89%, 수입 원맥은 1.19~1.74%였으며, 원맥의 단위 밀도는 국산 원맥이 512~859 g/L, 수입 원맥이 789~853 g/L로 수입 원맥의 범위가 더 좁게 나타났다. 국산 원맥의 falling number는 147~822 s로 통상적인 고품질 밀가루의 범위인 300~600 s를 벗어난 300 s 미만의 낮은 품질의 원맥이 존재함을 보여주었다. 반면에 수입 원맥의 falling number는 모두 300 s 이상이며 최대치는 516 s로 모든 원맥이 고품질 범위에 있었다. 피해립과 이물질 함량에서는 국산 원맥이 수입 원맥보다 평균적으로 높은 수치를 보여주었으나, 국산 원맥의 피해립과 이물질 함량은 2011년에서 2013년으로 갈수록 수치가 점차 줄어드는 경향성을 보여주어 지속적인 품질 개선이 이루어지고 있음을 보여주었다. Quality characteristics (moisture, protein, ash, bulk density, falling number, damaged kernel, and foreign material) of 443 domestic wheat samples harvested between 2011 and 2013 were compared with those of 160 imported wheat samples from the United States, Australia, and Canada. Moisture content of domestic wheat (10.9∼13.9%) was generally higher than that of imported wheat (8.0∼12.6%). Large variation in protein content was found in domestic wheat compared to imported wheat even though variation in protein content of domestic wheat tended to decrease every year, implying quality control efforts for domestic wheat. A similar trend was observed in ash content, which was approximately 0.1% higher in domestic wheat kernels over 3 years. Imported wheat samples had a falling number of 300 or above. On the other hand, some domestic wheat samples had a falling number of 300, which meant low quality of wheat kernels. Generally, quality variations in domestic wheat kernels decreased over the years; however, it is necessary to maintain minimum requirements of moisture content and falling number for high and consistent quality domestic wheat.

Short Communication: Food Science/Microbiology : Comparison of Allergy-Inducible Wheat Protein Contents among Imported and Domestic Wheat Flours in Korea

( Ju Hee Kim ),( Pyo June Pak ),( Jung Gon Kim ),( Young Keun Cheong ),( Chon Sik Kang ),( Nam Taek Lee ),( Namhyun Chung ) 한국응용생명화학회 2016 Journal of Applied Biological Chemistry (J. Appl. Vol.59 No.1

Wheat is a staple food in the Korean diet, which is increasingly becoming westernized. Because most domestic wheat consumption relies on imported wheat, we aimed to evaluate the allergy-inducible protein contents of commercial flours from imported and domestic wheat. Analysis of the protein contents by densitometry suggested that domestic wheat flours contain lower levels of high molecular weight glutenin and omega-gliadin (50 and 34% lower, respectively) than imported wheat flours. Therefore, domestic wheat flours are less likely to cause allergic reactions than imported wheat flours are. Based on the findings of our study, were commend increased consumption of domestic wheat flours to those who are sensitive to allergy.

밀 품질평가 현황과 검사제도

이춘기,남중현,강문석,구본철,김재철,박광근,박문웅,김용호 韓國作物學會 2002 한국작물학회지 Vol.47 No.S

On the purpose to suggest an advanced scheme in assessing the domestic wheat quality, this paper reviewed the inspection systems of wheat in major wheat producing countries as well as the quality criteria which are being used in wheat grading and classification. Most wheat producing countries are adopting both classifications of class and grade to provide an objective evaluation and an official certification to their wheat. There are two main purposes in the wheat classification. The first objectives of classification is to match the wheat with market requirements to maximize market opportunities and returns to growers. The second is to ensure that payments to glowers aye made on the basis of the quality and condition of the grain delivered. Wheat classes has been assigned based on the combination of cultivation area, seed-coat color, kernel and varietal characteristics that are distinctive. Most reputable wheat marketers also employ a similar approach, whereby varieties of a particular type are grouped together, designed by seed coat colour, grain hardness, physical dough properties, and sometimes more precise specification such as starch quality, all of which are genetically inherited characteristics. This classification in simplistic terms is the categorization of a wheat variety into a commercial type or style of wheat that is recognizable for its end use capabilities. All varieties registered in a class are required to have a similar end-use performance that the shipment be consistent in processing quality, cargo to cargo and year to year, Grain inspectors have historically determined wheat classes according to visual kernel characteristics associated with traditional wheat varieties. As well, any new wheat variety must not conflict with the visual distinguishability rule that is used to separate wheats of different classes. Some varieties may possess characteristics of two or more classes. Therefore, knowledge of distinct varietal characteristics is necessary in making class determinations. The grading system sets maximum tolerance levels for a range of characteristics that ensure functionality and freedom from deleterious factors. Tests for the grading of wheat include such factors as plumpness, soundness, cleanliness, purity of type and general condition. Plumpness is measured by test weight. Soundness is indicated by the absence or presence of musty, sour or commercially objectionable foreign odors and by the percentage of damaged kernels that ave present in the wheat. Cleanliness is measured by determining the presence of foreign material after dockage has been removed. Purity of class is measured by classification of wheats in the test sample and by limitation for admixtures of different classes of wheat. Moisture does not influence the numerical grade. However, it is determined on all shipments and reported on the official certificate. U.S. wheat is divided into eight classes based on color, kernel Hardness and varietal characteristics. The classes are Durum, Hard Red Spring, Hard Red Winter, Soft Red Winter, Hard White, soft White, Unclassed and Mixed. Among them, Hard Red Spring wheat, Durum wheat, and Soft White wheat are further divided into three subclasses, respectively. Each class or subclass is divided into five U.S. numerical grades and U.S. Sample grade. Special grades are provided to emphasize special qualities or conditions affecting the value of wheat and are added to and made a part of the grade designation. Canadian wheat is also divided into fourteen classes based on cultivation area, color, kernel hardness and varietal characteristics. The classes have 2-5 numerical grades, a feed grade and sample grades depending on class and grading tolerance. The Canadian grading system is based mainly on visual evaluation, and it works based on the kernel visual distinguishability concept. The Australian wheat is classified based on geographical and quality differentiation. The wheat grown in Australia is predominantly white grained. There are commonly up to 20 different segregations of wheat in a given season. Each variety grown is assigned a category and a growing areas. The state governments in Australia, in cooperation with the Australian Wheat Board(AWB), issue receival standards and dockage schedules annually that list grade specifications and tolerances for Australian wheat. AWB is managing "Golden Rewards" which is designed to provide pricing accuracy and market signals for Australia's grain growers. Continuous payment scales for protein content from 6 to 16% and screenings levels from 0 to 10% based on varietal classification are presented by the Golden Rewards, and the active payment scales and prices can change with market movements.movements.

시판 국내산 및 수입산 통밀(Triticum aestivum L.)의 영양성분 및 항산화 활성 비교

장혜림(Hye-Lim Jang),박서연(Seo-Yeon Park),이종헌(Jong-Hun Lee),김보민(Bo Min Kim),이상훈(Sang Hoon Lee),남진식(Jin-Sik Nam) 한국식품영양과학회 2018 한국식품영양과학회지 Vol.47 No.8

본 연구에서는 우리나라에서 생산되고 있는 국내산 통밀과 미국에서 수입된 수입산 통밀의 일반성분 및 영양성분, 항산화 활성을 조사하여 원산지에 따른 차이를 비교하고 평가하였다. 국내산 및 수입산 통밀은 수분과 탄수화물을 제외한 모든 성분이 국내산 통밀에서 높게 측정되었다. 특히 조회분과 식이섬유는 각각 1.2배 이상의 차이를 보였으며, 조단백질과 조지방 함량 또한 각각 P<0.01 수준에서 유의한 차이를 나타내었다. 통밀의 아미노산 중 글루탐산의 함량은 국내산과 수입산 각각 3.75%와 3.12%로 전체의 약 30% 이상을 차지하였으며, 국내산이 수입산보다 약 1.2배 높았다. 또한 셀레늄을 제외한 칼슘, 구리, 철, 칼륨, 마그네슘, 나트륨 및 아연 모두 국내산 통밀이 수입산 통밀보다 유의적으로 높은 함량을 보였다(P<0.01). 총 포화지방산, 총 불포화지방산함량 또한 국내산 통밀이 수입산 통밀보다 더 높았으며, 총 지방산에 대한 불포화지방산의 비율 또한 국내산 통밀과 수입산 통밀 각각 78.12%, 75.01%로 유의적인 차이를 보였다(P<0.01). 총 폴리페놀 및 플라보노이드는 국내산 통밀 메탄올 추출물이 각각 1,354.62 mg GAE/g, 65.69 mg QE/g으로 가장 높은 함량을 보였으며, 다른 추출물과 유의적인 차이를 나타내었다(P<0.05). DPPH 라디칼과 ABTS 라디칼 모두 물 추출물에서는 수입산 통밀이, 메탄올 추출물에서는 국내산 통밀이 높은 소거 활성을 나타내었다. 특히 25 mg/mL 농도의 메탄올 추출물에서는 국내산 및 수입산 통밀의 DPPH 라디칼 소거 활성이 각각 91.93%, 45.95%로 2배 이상의 차이를 나타내었다. 이러한 결과는 국산 통밀의 자급률 증가와 품질 향상을 위한 기초자료로 활용할 수 있을 것으로 기대된다. In this study, the proximate compositions, nutritional components, and antioxidant properties of Korean and imported whole wheat were examined and compared. The crude ash, crude protein, crude lipid, and dietary fiber contents were higher in Korean whole wheat than in imported whole wheat, whereas the moisture and carbohydrate levels were lower. In particular, the crude ash and dietary fiber content differed by more than 1.2 times, and the crude protein and crude lipid content were also significantly different at the P<0.01 level. The glutamic acid contents of Korean and imported whole wheat were 3.75% and 3.12%, respectively, and comprised more than 30% of the total amino acid content, and the glutamic acid content of Korean whole wheat was 1.2 times higher than that of imported whole wheat. In addition, calcium (Ca), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), and zinc (Zn) levels of Korean whole wheat were significantly higher than those of imported whole wheat (P<0.01). The total saturated and unsaturated fatty acid contents were also higher in Korean whole wheat than in imported whole wheat. The ratio of unsaturated fatty acid to total fatty acid of Korean and imported whole wheat were 78.12% and 75.01%, respectively, which showed a significant difference (P<0.01). The total polyphenol and flavonoids contents of the 80% methanol extract from Korean whole wheat were 1,354.62 mg gallic acid equivalents/g and 65.69 mg quercetin equivalents/g, respectively. 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity of the methanol extract from Korean whole wheat (91.93%) was found to be more than twice that of the methanol extract from imported whole wheat (45.95%). These results are expected to be used as basic data for increasing the self-sufficiency and quality of Korean whole wheat.

Phenotypic and Genotypic Analyses of Drought Tolerance in Korean and Tunisian Wheat Cultivars

( Sang Heon Kim ),( Dae Yeon Kim ),( Ines Yacoubi ),( Yong Weon Seo ) 한국육종학회 2014 Plant Breeding and Biotechnology Vol.2 No.2

Common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and durum wheat (T. turgidum L. subsp. Durum) are major staple food crops in the world. However, their production are limited by environmental stress such as drought. In order to evaluate wheat`s response to drought, a total of 77 common wheat and durum wheat consisted of 19 Korean common wheat, 30 Tunisian common wheat and 28 Tunisian durum wheat were used in this study. Drought stress was applied for 21 days by suspending water application starting at the third leaf-expansion stage, followed by watering for the recovery of wheat until harvesting. Phenotypic parameters such as plant height, leaf length, tiller number, chlorophyll content, days to flowering and dry weight were scored during and after the treatment. Drought tolerance trait index (DTTI) and drought tolerance index (DTI) were calculated and used as criteria for selection of drought tolerance. At the end of treatment, most of the parameters except tiller numbers significantly decreased. Even after re-watering, plant height, leaf length, and dry weight continuously decreased. However, leaf chlorophyll content, and days to flowering of both stressed and non-stressed plants showed no significant differences. A total of 17 drought tolerance related simple sequence repeats (SSR) markers were used to identify genetic distance between Korean and Tunisian cultivars and elucidate possible use of marker systems for drought resistance. The common wheat and durum wheat cultivars formed different clusters for drought tolerance (resistance, moderate resistance, susceptible) using the SSR data. The results obtained in this study could help to increase genetic resources and breeding program for drought tolerance.

우리밀과 Durum Rimachinata를 이용한 생면 파스타의 조리특성

김연주(Yeon-Ju Kim),주종찬(Jong-Chan Ju),김래영(Rae-Young Kim),김원태(Won-Tae Kim),박재희(Jae-Hee Park),전순실(Soon-Sil Chun) 한국식품영양과학회 2011 한국식품영양과학회지 Vol.40 No.10

부드러운 식감을 선호하는 소비자들의 기호에 맞는 맞춤형 우리밀 파스타 제조의 일환으로 durum wheat rimachinata에 우리밀가루 0, 15, 30, 45 및 60%를 대체하여 제조한 파스타의 물리 화학적 특성을 살펴보고자 하였다. 입도분포는 우리밀이 250 μm 이하의 작은 입자가 전체의 87.03%를 차지하며, durum rimachinata는 250 μm 이상이 68.70%를 나타내었다. 일반성분은 durum rimachinata에서 단백질과 회분이 각각 13.84±0.03, 0.70±0.02로 우리밀보다 높게 나타났다. 반죽의 farinograph 특성은 우리밀의 대체량이 증가할수록 수분흡수율은 증가하고 반죽형성 시간은 높게 나타났고, 안정도와 연화도는 증가하였다. Amylograph 특성은 우리밀의 대체량이 증가할수록 호화개시온도는 상승하고, 최고점도는 감소하였으나 우리밀 30% 대체까지는 550 B.U. 이상으로 면류제품의 물성변화에 큰 영향을 미치지 않았다. 조리특성은 우리밀 대체량 15% 미만에서 중량, 부피, 수분흡수율, 탁도 및 조리손실율이 대조구와 유사하여 부드럽고, 탄력성이 있는 파스타 면을 만들 수 있었다. 색도는 우리밀 대체량이 증가할수록 L값과 a값은 증가하였고, b값은 감소하였다. 물성측정 결과 조리면의 경도 및 점착성은 우리밀 대체 30% 이상에서 낮은 값을 나타내었으며, 탄력성, 검성, 씹힘성은 높은 값을 나타내었다. 전반적인 기호도는 대조구가 가장 높게 나타났으나 우리밀 대체 45% 이상에서 높은 기호도를 나타내었다. 따라서 우리밀을 대체한 파스타의 제조시 반죽 및 조리특성에서는 우리밀 15% 대체수준이 적합하나 조리된 파스타의 기계적 물성측정 및 관능평가 결과에서는 30% 대체 이상에서 높게 나타났다. This study investigated the physicochemical characteristics of Korean wheat flour substituted for 0%, 15%, 30%, 45%, and 60% durum rimachinata wheat in order to develop a Korean wheat pasta suitable for consumer-preferred soft textures. The particles of Korean wheat that were less than 250 μm were 87.03% of all particles, while 68.7% of durum rimachinata had particles more than 250 μm in size. Durum rimachinata had more protein (13.84±0.03) and ash (0.70±0.02) than Korean wheat. In farinograph characteristics, water absorption, development time, stability, and weakness increased as the amounts of substituted Korean wheat flour increased. Also, the gelatinization characteristics of the amylograph exhibited an increase of gelatinization temperature and decrease in maximum viscosity. However, maximum viscosity was shown to be more than 550 B.U. until 30% of the substitution level of Korean wheat flour to durum rimachinata wheat. Also, it did not affect the texture of the noodle product. We could make pasta with softness and springiness with less than a 15% substitution level of Korean wheat flour due to similar characteristics in cooking properties such as weight, volume, water absorption, turbidity, and cooking loss when compared to the control. L and a values increased, and the b value decreased in color as substitution amounts of Korean wheat flour increased. The hardness and adhesiveness of cooking noodles was shown to be a low value at more than a 30% substitution level of Korean wheat flour, and springiness, gumminess, and chewiness all exhibited high values. In a sensory evaluation, overall acceptability was shown to have the highest score in control. More than 30% of substitution of Korean wheat flour showed high preferences. Therefore, 15% of the substitution level of Korean wheat flour could be adapted in dough and cooking properties for making pasta-substituted Korean wheat. However, a texture analyzer and sensory evaluation of cooked pasta was shown to have a good quality at more than 30% substitution level of Korean wheat flour.

밀의 도정 및 발효 균주에 따른 우리밀 메주의 품질특성

이경란 ( Gyeong Ran Lee ),고유진 ( Yu Jin Ko ),김은정 ( Eun Jung Kim ),설희경 ( Hui Gyeong Seol ),김은자 ( Eun Ja Kim ),김일훈 ( Il Hun Kim ),심기환 ( Ki Hwan Shim ),김영기 ( Young Gi Kim ),유충호 ( Chung Ho Ryu ) 한국식품저장유통학회(구 한국농산물저장유통학회) 2012 한국식품저장유통학회지 Vol.19 No.6

본 연구는 표준화된 밀 메주를 제조하기 위해 원료밀의 도정에 따른 수침 및 증숙조건과 품질특성을 조사하였다 수침시간에 따른 2분도 밀, 5분도 밀, 통밀, 밀가루의 물리적 특성변화를 조사하기 위해 무게 부피, 수분 함량, 수분 흡수 량을 살펴 본 결과, 대부분의 밀에서 수침4시간 이후에는 평형상태에 도달하였다. 원료밀 종류에 따른 증숙시간을 조사한 결과, 통밀을 제외한 밀원료의 증숙시간은 100℃에서 10분이 적합하였다. 최적 수침 및 증숙조건으로, 가공한 2분도 밀과 5분도 밀을 각각 A. oryzae와 B. subtilis Ml으로 발효하여 우리밀 메주를 제조한 후 일반 성분 및 효소역가를 비교한 결과, 황국균을 사용한 경우 발효 효율이 더 우수하게 나타났다. 또한 2분도 밀도다 5분도 밀에서 총당, 환원당 및 a-amylase 역가가 높게 나타나, 우수한 밀 메주의 제조를 위해 5분도 밀을 A. oryzae로 발효하는 것이 효율적이라 사료된다. In this research, the soaking and steaming conditions of Korean wheat meju according to the degree of milling were investigated, and the quality characteristic was analyzed, for the manufacture of the standardized Korean wheat meju. As a result of the changes in weight, volume, moisture content, and moisture absorption amount, which indicate the physical properties of Korean wheat meju using 20% polished wheat, 50% polished wheat, whole wheat, and whole wheat flour, most of the wheat materials reached the equilibrium state after 4 hours of soaking. Also, the appropriate steaming time to complete the cooking of the wheat materials was found to be 10 min at 100℃, except for whole wheat. The 20 and 50% polished wheat materials were selected for Korean wheat meju based on the soaking and steaming results. The selected wheat materials were fermented using Aspergillus oryzae and Bacillus subtilis M1, respectively, and the quality properties and enzyme activities showed that A. oryzae would be effective for the manufacture of Korean wheat meju. Also, the 50% polished wheat showed higher total sugar content, reducing sugar content, and α-amylase activity than the 20% polished wheat. Therefore, it is supposed that the fermentation of 50% polished wheat by A. oryzae would be appropriate for manufacturing superior Korean wheat meju.

기능성 소재를 첨가한 우리밀 제빵 제품의 항산화 활성과 단백질 소화도

한인화(Inhwa Han),박병건(Byung Geon Park) 동아시아식생활학회 2014 동아시아식생활학회지 Vol.24 No.6

Cookies, muffins and baguettes were formulated with Korean wheat flour and compared with those made from imported wheat flour in terms of total phenol content, antioxidant activity, and in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD). Chunnyencho and Honghawsi were added to improve quality of the bakery products. Addition of Chunnyencho did not show any significant improvement, whereas Honghawsi increased total phenol content of cookies. Total phenol content in 80% ethanol extract of muffins prepared with Korean wheat flour was 1.5 times higher than those made from imported wheat flour, whereas total phenol content was 1.2 times higher in the 80% methanol extract of baguettes prepared with imported wheat flour compared to those made with Korean wheat flour. Overall, total phenol content of Korean wheat flour was higher than that of imported wheat flour because total phenol content was higher in 80% ethanol extracts than in 80% methanol extracts. Antioxidant activity was not significantly different between ethyl acetate extracts of bakery products from imported wheat and Korean wheat, whereas antioxidant activity of 80% methanol extract of muffins with Korean wheat was 2.4 times higher than that from imported wheat. IVPD was not significantly different in any bakery products made from imported wheat or Korean wheat but was higher in baguettes than cookies or muffins. Conclusively, bakery products made from Korean wheat had higher total phenol content and antioxidant activity than imported wheat.

The Effect of Level of Wheat Inclusion in Diets for Growing and Finishing Pigs on Performance, Nutrient Digestibility and Gastric Ulceration

Ball, M.E.E.,Magowan, E. Asian Australasian Association of Animal Productio 2012 Animal Bioscience Vol.25 No.7

Four experimental diets were formulated to contain 700 g/kg cereal with decreasing levels of wheat:barley inclusion. Diet 1 contained 700 g/kg wheat, diet 2 contained 600 g/kg wheat and 100 g/kg barley, diet 3 contained 500 g/kg wheat and 200 g/kg barley and diet 4 contained 400 g/kg wheat and 300 g/kg barley. The diets were offered to pigs on three trials to investigate effects on the performance of individually (n = 72) and group housed (n = 480) pigs and on nutrient digestibility in pigs housed in metabolizm crates (n = 24). Performance was assessed from 10 wks of age until slaughter and carcass characteristics were measured. For the group performance study, one pig from each pen (in total 24) at 10, 15 wks and at finish were slaughtered to ascertain scores for stomach ulceration, stomach weights and intestinal length. Level of wheat inclusion did not significantly (p>0.05) affect liveweight gain (LWG) or feed conversion ratio (FCR). Feed intake was lowest (p<0.05) for individually housed pigs offered diets containing 700 g/kg wheat during the 10-15 wk period, which indicated that individually housed pigs attempted to eat to a constant energy intake. There was little evidence of stomach ulceration across treatments and increasing wheat inclusion had no detrimental effect. Higher levels of wheat inclusion tended to increase backfat depth at the $P_2$ position which could lead to increasing grading penalties in a commercial situation although more research is required in this area. Increasing level of wheat inclusion increased digestible energy (DE) content but the lack of effect on FCR and killing out percentage indicated that utilization of energy from barley and wheat was similar. Digestibility coefficients increased linearly with increasing wheat content, which can be attributed to the lower level of fibre and higher level of starch in wheat compared with barley.