모로코 베르베르계 유대인의 정체성 고찰: 다큐멘터리 영화 <팅히르-예루살렘, 멜라흐의 메아리>를 중심으로

박규현 ( Kyou-hyun Park ) 한국비교문학회 2021 比較文學 Vol.- No.85

본 연구는 모로코의 유대문화유산 창조의 주체였지 이제는 이스라엘로 이주한 유대인들의 정체성에 관심을 가졌다. 이를 위해 모로코의 역사에서 유대인 공동체의 흔적을 되짚고 그곳을 떠나 이스라엘로 이주한 이들에게 그들의 정체성을 묻는 다큐멘터리 영화 < 팅히르 - 예루살렘, 멜라흐의 메아리Tinghir-Jérusalem: Les Échos du mellah >(2011, 카말 하츠카르Kamal Hachkar 감독)를 분석하고자 하였다. 다큐멘터리 형식의 이 영화는 실제 인물들이 과거부터 현재까지 직접 보고 듣고 겪은 일들을 들려주는 것을 그대로 담아내는 구술 채록의 성격을 지니고 있다. 현재까지 문헌 자료로는 구하기 힘든 팅히르 유대인 공동체의 역사를 알려주는 이 영화는 모로코 굴곡의 역사를 증언하는 역사 영화로서의 가치를 인정받고 있기도 하다. 본 연구는 우선 영화 속에 나타나는 화자의 장소 이동과 그와 관련된 질문과 주요 내용을 따라가며 모로코의 베르베르인, 유대인 공동체 ‘멜라흐(Mellah)’, 모로코 유대인의 이스라엘 이주에 관련된 역사를 고찰하였으며, 다음으로 영화 속의 대사를 중심으로 이스라엘로 이주한 자들과 모로코에 남겨진 자들의 기억과 향수를 살펴보고자 하였다. 모로코 작은 마을의 유대인 공동체 역사를 고찰한 본 연구는 현재 모로코-이스라엘 외교 관계 진전의 밑거름 중 하나가 무엇인지 짐작하게 해준다. This study aims to find out the identity of Jews who were once the creators of the Jewish cultural heritage in Morocco and now immigrated to Israel. The research analyzes the documentary film < Tinghir-Jérusalem: Les Échos du mellah > (2011, director Kamal Hachkar), which follows the traces of the history of the Jewish community in Morocco and asks about the identity of Moroccan Jews living in Israel. This movie is an oral narrative that captures what people have experienced in their lives. The film, which shows the history of the Tinghir Jewish community, therefore functions as a historical testimony that tells Morocco’s troubled history. First of all, this paper examines the history of the Moroccan Berbers, Jewish community ‘Mellah’, and Moroccan Jews’ migration to Israel by tracing the narrator’s move. And then it elaborates the memories of Moroccan Jews living in Israel and those left behind in Morocco through the film. Also, this study, examining the history of a small Jewish community in Morocco, implies what the basis for the current Moroccan-Israel diplomatic relations is.

Israel’s Identity, Fall, and Destiny in the Book of Jubilees

Janghoon Park 대한성서공회 2021 성경원문연구 Vol.- No.48

Second Temple Jewish literature is a helpful resource for illuminating the hermeneutical interface between the Old Testament and the New Testament. The present article seeks to contribute to our knowledge of Second Temple literature by exploring the book of Jubilees, an interpretative retelling of the Pentateuchal narrative. Our specific focus is on Jubilees’ understanding of Israel’s identity, fall, and destiny, which are three important themes that are expounded in both the Old and the New Testaments. The book of Jubilees displays the following features in its conceptualization of Israel’s identity, fall, and destiny. First, Jubilees describes Israel as the true successors of Adam, who embodied the glorious creational vision of priestly humanity and retained it even after his sin. Adam is described as the first priest of Israel who kept the ritual regulations in the Mosaic law, and the people of Israel are presented as Adam’s true priestly descendants. Not all of the Jewish people belong to Israel, and only those Jews who remain faithful to the Mosaic law, obeying particularly the priestly regulations that mark Israel as distinct from Gentiles constitute the true priestly line descending from Adam. Second, concerning Israel’s fall, Jubilees emphasizes Israel’s violation of the Mosaic law, especially the regulations that mark Israel’s priestly identity, as the paradigmatic case of sin, which is exemplified in the story of the fall of Watchers in Genesis 6. Jubilees identifies corrupt human heart and demonic power as the two causes of human sins that are also operative also in Israel, inclining Israel to forfeit their priestly identity. While the people of Israel are provided with some protection from demonic power, they are still vulnerable to demonic influence. Third, concerning Israel’s destiny, the people of Israel do not enjoy the privilege of either disembodied immortality or bodily resurrection because God’s creational intention for humanity was longevity rather than immortality. The result of Adam and Israel’s fall was therefore not mortality itself but shortened lifespan and premature physical destruction that now characterize human life in the present world. Only those Jews who keep the Mosaic law and retain their priestly identity will be restored from this shortened span and premature violent death through eschatological vindication and heavenly ascension.

‘이스라엘’의 정체와 기원 : 고대 근동 기록유물과 민족 지칭법을 중심으로

오민수 ( Oh¸ Min Su ) 아세아연합신학대학교 ACTS 신학연구소 2020 ACTS 신학저널 Vol.46 No.-

대부분의 학자들의 견해는 이스라엘의 정체(正體)와 기원을 적어도 국가적 경향을 가진 정체(政體)에서 찾고 있다. ‘이스라엘’이란 용어는 독립 국가로 출현한 이후이거나, 아니면 포로기 귀환공동체가 이 호칭을 사용하였고 본문의 전승자들은 - 성경 이야기체의 역사 서술 맥락의 진행 방향과는 반대로 - 신학적 의미를 추가하고, 이를 성경 속 해석적 지표로 집어넣었다고 추론한다. 성경 저자들은 청자의 현재와 과거 사건과의 실존적 연속성을 위해 이스라엘이란 용어를 범주적인 구분없이 사용한다. 따라서 이스라엘의 정체와 기원에 대해 모호해질 수 있다. 이 연구의 목표는 역사적 유물과 자료들 너머에 있는 기억의 흔적들을 소급하여 이스라엘의 정체와 기원에 대한 사실적이고 언어적인 근거를 찾는데 있다. 이를 위해 연구자는 성경 외의 자료(고대 석비들의 판독과 근래의 해석 가능성), 팔레스타인에 대한 고고학적 기록, 그리고 성경 내 자료를 종합하는 방법을 사용하였다. 우가릿의 전사자 목록(BC 13세기 말)은 신명 ‘엘’(El)이 포함된 ‘이스라엘’이란 인명이 레반트 지경 지역에 낯선 이름이 아니었음을 알려준다. 메렌프타 석비(BC 1209/8)에서 이스라엘은 지역이나 영토를 말하는 것이 아닌 인적 집단을 지칭하였다. 다만 이 석비는 이스라엘이 단일한 기원을 가지고 있었는지에 대해서는 말해 주고 있지 않다. 살만에셀 3세의 석비(BC 853)와 모압 왕 메사의 석비(BC 840)는 각각 9세기 중반 이후 이스라엘은 팔레스타인 북부에 지역을 차지하고 있는 정치적 실체로 역사의 무대에 세력을 행사하였음을 알려주고 있다. BC 12세기에서 BC 9세기 중엽까지의 고대자료들은 직접적으로 이스라엘을 언급하지 않은 체 침묵하고 있다. 이에 연구자는 세계관적 기억 속에 남겨진 흔적을 추적하기 위해 오랜 언어적 관습 중에 하나인 민족들의 지칭법을 살펴보면, 언어적 표현 너머에 있는 당시 기억 속에 각인되어 담겨진 해석적 의미들을 되살려 보았다. 민족들을 지칭하는 명명법에는 1) 시조나 지경에 따른 지칭법(에돔, 모압, 암몬), 2) 역사적 배경에 따른 지칭법(블레셋), 3) 도시에 따른 지칭법(두로, 시돈, 앗시리아, 바벨론)이 있었다. 가나안 땅 유역의 주변 민족의 경우 모두 - 블레셋을 제외하고는 - 조상명을 기본으로 하고 있었지만, 메소포타미아 문명이나 그 인근 지역에 있던 나라들의 경우, 모두 도시명을 따르고 있었다. 이스라엘이란 지칭을 살펴본 결과, 이스라엘은 조상명과 동시에 지경명을 가지고 있었다. 그러므로 이 지칭은 애초부터 정치적 실체와 국가와 상관이 없었다. 따라서, 이 지칭의 유래는 왕국 시기나 포로기 이후의 명칭이 아니라, 포로기 이전까지 거슬러 올라가고 있었다. 그리고 ‘이스라엘’이란 지칭에는 한 조상으로부터 유래되었다는 일정 정도 동질성을 바탕으로 한, 인적인 집단으로서, 하나님으로부터 특정 지역을 할당받았다는 사상이 내재하고 있었다. 결론적으로, 성경 내의 민족들의 지칭법 연구는 동질성을 바탕으로 한 이스라엘의 정체와 기원과 하나님으로부터 거주할 땅을 할당받았다는 역사의식을 명백히 표현해 주고 있다. 그러므로 이 지칭의 사용이 국가형성 시기나 포로기 후기로 편력하는 기존의 일반적 견해는 수정되어야 할 것이다. In the opinion of most scholars, the identity and origin of Israel lies at least in the state of a national tendency. The term ‘Israel’ is either after the emergence of an independent state, or the returning community of captivity has used this designation, and he editors of the text-as opposed to the historical narrative context of the biblical narrative-add a theological meaning and interpret it in the Bible. And they would put this term into the text as an interpretive indicator. Biblical authors use the term Israel without categorical distinction for the existential continuity of the listener’s present and past events. Thus, the identity and origin of Israel can be vague. The aim of this study is to retrospectively trace traces of memories beyond hisIsrael’s torical relics and data to find a factual and linguistic basis for Israel’s identity and origin. To this end, the researcher used non-biblical data (reading of ancient monuments and the possibility of recent interpretation), archaeological records of Palestine, and a method of synthesizing data in the Bible. Ugarit’s list of the warriors (end of the 13th century BC) reveals that the name “Israel,” which includes the deity “El,” was not an unfamiliar name in the region of the Levant. In the Merenphtha Stele (1209/8 BC), Israel refers to human groups, not regions or territories. However, this stone monument does not tell whether Israel had a single origin. The monument of Salmaneser III (853 BC) and the monument of Mesa of Moab (840 BC), respectively, indicate that since the mid-9th century, Israel has exercised power on the stage of history as a political entity occupying a region in northern Palestine. Ancient data from the 12th century BC to the middle of the 9th century BC remain silent without directly mentioning Israel. In order to trace the traces left in the memory of the worldview, the researcher looked at the naming method of peoples, one of the old linguistic conventions, and revived the interpretive meanings engraved in the memories of the time beyond linguistic expressions. The nomenclature for nations includes: 1) nomenclature according to the origins or regions (Edom, Moab, Ammon), 2) nomenclature according to historical background (Philistines), 3) nomenclature according to cities (Duro, Sidon, Assyria, Babylon). All the neighboring peoples in the Canaanite basin-except for the Philistines-were based on their ancestor names, but all the Mesopotamian civilizations and neighboring countries followed the city name. As a result of examining the designation of Israel, Israel had both the ancestral name and the geographical name. Therefore, from the beginning, this designation had nothing to do with the political entity and the state. Thus, this designation dates back to before the period, not after the period of the kingdom or the period of captivity. The idea of “Israel” as a human group based on a certain degree of homogeneity that it originated from an ancestor, was assigned a specific area by God was inherent. In conclusion, the study of the designation of nations in the Bible clearly expresses the origin of Israel based on homogeneity and the identity of God assigned the land to live in. Therefore, the existing general view of the use of this designation as the period of state formation or post-captivity should be revised.

이스라엘 군부의 정치개입 영향과 함의에 관한 고찰

안승훈 한국중동학회 2014 韓國 中東 學會 論叢 Vol.35 No.2

Israel's unprecedented successes as a political democracy and its economic development make it an abnormality in the modern world. Compared to other developing states in the Middle East, Asia and other regions, Israel has successfully established a modern state system. Since this achievement the Israeli military has played a pivotal role in state formation and development by helping to produce a modern state resembling that in the West. Before and after its independence Israel has faced external and internal security threats. These continuous security threats offered the Israeli military authority and a privileged status, not only as a defense establishment taking responsibility over national security, but also as a social integration entity for national unity by being entrusted with civilian tasks such as education, settlement, and the absorption of the hundreds of thousands of Jewish immigrants arriving in Israel. Due to the critical role the Israeli military plays in society, voluntarily or involuntarily, the Israeli military has retained the public trust in which the military has exerted and expanded its influence and power. This power goes beyond the overall social and political sectors of Israel into the practical policy making related to security affairs by monopolizing the national security agenda. In particular, the several wars and military confrontations with "hostile" neighboring Arab states, as well as the recent low-intensity conflicts with armed non-state groups such as Hamas and Hezbollah, contributed to the justification of Israeli military involvement in politics and the career transfers of the military officers into the political sector. As a result, these trends have caused controversy over matters of separation of boundaries between politics and the military, civilian supremacy over the military, and Israel’s democracy in civil-military relations. In this respect, it is important to research the role and structure of the military authority formed in Israel for a better understanding of Israeli society and to further understand the civilian-military relations strongly established in Israel. Therefore, based on these arguments, this research will proceed with the following aims, (1) to address the main perspectives of Israel's civil-military relations, (2) to examine the causes and characteristics of military involvement in politics, and (3) to analyze the involvement mechanism of Israel's military authority in politics, and (4) to determine the influence and implications that Israel's military has had in politics and society. 본 연구의 목적은 이스라엘 군부의 정치 개입에 대한 근거와 정치 개입 메카니 즘(Mechanism)을 분석함으로써 이스라엘 군부와 이스라엘 정치 영역과의 상호 관계를 분석하는데 있다. 민군 관계(Civil-Military Relations)에 대한 연구는 제3 세계 민주주의와 정치 발전 연구의 중요한 주제중의 하나이다. 특히 1950년대 후 반 아시아, 아프리카, 라틴 아메리카의 다수 신생국가들의 정치 발전 과정 중에 발 생한 군부의 강제적인 정치 개입은 이들 국가들의 정치발전에 긍정적이던 부정적 이던 큰 영향을 끼쳐왔다. 그러나 이스라엘의 경우, 제3세계 신생 국가들에서 볼 수 있는 군부의 정치개입 이 전혀 다른 양상을 띠며 발전하였다. 즉 이스라엘 국가 건설 과정 속에서 필연적 으로 발생할 수밖에 없었던 주변 아랍 국가들과의 분쟁은 안보 영역뿐만 아니라 민간 영역에서 군부의 영향력 확대를 초래하였고, 1967년 6월 전쟁과 1980년대 이후 본격적으로 시작된 팔레스타인 무장단체들과의 저강도 분쟁(Low-Intensity Conflicts)은 군부의 정치적 영향력을 강화하는데 결정적인 역할을 하였다. 특히 “이스라엘 안보주의(Israeli Securtism)”은 디아스포라, 홀로코스트와 같은 유태인들의 역사적 경험과 이스라엘 국가 건설의 양대 이데올로기였던 시온주의 와 유대주의와 유기적으로 결합함으로써, 이스라엘 군부는 민간 영역의 묵시적인 동의와 합의를 바탕으로 다른 어떤 사회조직보다 강력한 권위와 권한을 이끌어 내 는데 성공하였다. 하지만 이러한 이스라엘 군부에 대한 긍정적인 평가와는 달리, 군부의 영향력 확대는 이스라엘의 대 팔레스타인 정책과 더불어 ‘이스라엘 민주주 의’ 비판에 단초를 제공하고 있는 것 또한 사실이다. 따라서 본 연구는 이러한 문제의식을 바탕으로 이스라엘 군부의 정치 개입에 대한 근거와 개입 메카니즘이 어떻게 형성되고 작동되는지에 초점을 두었다. 본 연구는 단순히 이스라엘 군부의 이론적 성격 분석에 초점을 맞추기 보다는 실제 국가 정책 결정 과정 속에서 군부의 정치 개입이 어떤 방식에 의해 진행되고, 확대 재생산되는지에 더 많은 관심을 두고 진행하였다. 이를 위해 이스라엘 군부의 정 치 충원에 대한 통계적 자료를 활용함으로써 구체적이고 실증적인 연구를 진행하 였다.

경고본문에 나타난 이스라엘의 대체성(Replaceability)

장석정(Sok-Chung Chang) 관동대학교 인문과학연구소 2012 人文學硏究 Vol.17 No.-

출애굽 한 이스라엘 백성들에게 하나님은 이스라엘 백성들에게 엄중한 경고의 말씀을 선포하셨다. 그것은 이스라엘 백성들이 약속의 땅에 들어가서 여호와만을 섬기지 않고 우상들을 섬기면, 그것이 이스라엘에게 올가미가 되거나, 그 땅에서 멸절되거나, 쫓겨나서 포로로 잡혀가게 된다는 경고의 말씀들이었다. 특히 신명기역사의 신학적 근거를 제공하고 있는 신명기에 이런 경고의 본문들이 가지고 있는 신학적 기능은 무엇이며, 이런 본문들에 대해서 어떤 해석이 가능한가에 대한 고민을 이 연구는 반영하고 있다고 하겠다. 물론 이런 멸절경고와 연관성이 있어 보이는 내용들이 출애굽기, 레위기, 그리고 민수기에도 있기 때문에, 이 본문들도 비교 분석하기로 한다. 물론 이렇게 포로가 된 이스라엘이 약속의 땅으로 돌아오게 될 것이라는 회복의 내용도 나온다. 이런 경고의 내용은 언제 기록되었는지에 연관되었다고 생각하기 보다는 ‘이스라엘의 대체성’이라는 신학적 주제로 설명될 수 있다는 것을 이 연구는 보여주고 있다. This study is to analyze the selected texts where the warnings against Israel"s idolatry are pronounced in Exodus-Deuteronomy. Israel was supposed to worship YHWH only when they entered the promised land as she made a covenant with YHWH. If Israel worshipped other gods whom the Canaanites served in the land, in some cases she should be punished with total and quick annihilation in the land. Various texts in Deuteronomy were critically analyzed and compared focusing upon the verbs that were used in each text. The warnings in Exodus-Numbers and in Deuteronomy were separated and compared in order to find out their different tendency. In the former case, serving other gods will be a snare to Israel. Only Lev. 18 says that Israel will be driven out from the land. Therefore, we can assume that the warnings in Exodus-Numbers show no replaceability of Israel except Lev. 18. Typically Israel"s worship of other gods and marriage with the people in Canaan are major reason for YHWH"s annihilation of Israel. Some texts show that the warning was fulfilled in the personal life, that is, a person who worshipped other gods should be put to death. Israel as a community did not perish in the land but individual people perish because of their idolatry. To the contrary, quite a few warnings in Deuteronomy show Israel"s replaceability, that is, Israel is not special but can be replaced by other nations when Israel commits idolatry in the land. The mention of the destruction and the exile do not necessarily mean that the texts were written or redacted in the exilic or post-exilic period. This criterion is very uncertain to decide of the date of the texts. Instead, I have tried to identify the concept of replaceability of Israel in those warning texts. Some warnings show that Israel can be replaced by other nations and the other warnings illustrate that Israel cannot be replaced and is special because her covenant with YHWH.

이스라엘과 하마스 전쟁의 역사적 배경

임형백 성결대학교 다문화평화연구소 2023 다문화와 평화 Vol.17 No.3

This paper examines the causes of the Israel-Hamas war that broke out in 2023. The parties to the 2023 war are Israel and Hamas, but the Israel-Hamas war is the total result of humanity's crimes and deception that have accumulated over thousands of years. This is by no means a problem only for Israel and Hamas. Throughout long history, any nation or race has sometimes been a victim and sometimes a perpetrator. Today, Israel and Palestine are hostile to each other and constantly fight. However, although Israelis and Palestinians have different names (Jehovah and Allah), they worship the same God and have a common ancestor named Abraham (in Qu’ran, Ibrahim). While the Jews (then Hebrews) were victims of slavery in ancient Egypt, they were invaders to the Canaanites they arrived with after escaping from Egypt. A representative battle was the Battle of Jericho. According to what is described in the Bible, the Hebrews invaded the peaceful city of Jericho and killed everyone, including the elderly and children. Moreover, Jews, Canaanites, and Arabs all belong to the Semitic tribe. On October 7, 2023, war broke out between Israel and Hamas. The direct cause was an attack by the Palestinian armed group Hamas. Hamas massacred Israeli civilians and kidnapped hostages. It is an inexcusable act against humanity and a crime. However, on the same day, the Harvard Palestine Solidarity Group (HPSG) at Harvard University issued a statement condemning Israel. Moreover, 35 organizations signed this. This is difficult to understand when considering Hamas' massacre and kidnapping of civilians. This requires understanding many other aspects in addition to the bad relationship between Israel and Palestine. This paper first compared Islam, Arab countries, and the Middle East. Islam, Arab, and Middle East are concepts that have common denominators and are often used interchangeably, but they are different concepts and require a clear distinction. The conflict between Sunni and Shia within Islam is no less severe than the conflict between Islam and Christianity. The regime change between opposing sects within Islam is completely different from the regime change between political parties in Western countries. Originally, Islam is a peaceful and equal religion. Islamic hardliners or militant groups by no means represent all of Islam. Second, we looked at the Jews. Ancient Jews and modern Jews were examined. Modern Jews exist in several sects and are a religious people rather than a blood people. And there are also confrontations and conflicts between factions. Third, anti-Semitism and Zionism were examined. Fourth, the causes of the Israel-Hamas war were examined. We examined seven causes of discrimination against Jews, secret treaties and political intrigues of powerful countries, interference with the interests of powerful countries, construction of Israeli settlements, US pro-Israel policies, Arab division, and Arab backlash. The direct cause of today’s conflicts in Arab countries was created by Western powers(countries). It is a paradoxical situation that Western countries, which sowed the seeds of current conflict through past colonial rule, talk about democracy and peace. Demanding ethics and humanity from Israel and Palestine, who are fighting a war for survival in the swamp of death created by Western powers, is a hypocritical act that forgets the past. 이 논문은 2023년 발발한 이스라엘과 하마스 전쟁의 원인을 살펴보았다. 2023년 전쟁의 당사자는 이스라엘과 하마스이지만, 이스라엘-하마스 전쟁은 수 천년간 축적되어온 인류의 범죄와 기만의 총체적 결과물이다. 결코 이스라엘과 하마스 만의 문제가 아니다. 오랜 역사 속에서 어떤 민족이나 종족이던 때로는 피해자가 되고 때로는 가해자가 된다. 오늘날 이스라엘과 팔레스타인은 서로 적대시하고 끊임없이 싸운다. 그러나 이스라엘인과 팔레스타인인은 (여호와와 알라로) 명칭은 다르지만 같은 신을 섬기며, 아브라함(코란에서는 이브라힘)이라는 공통의 조상을 가진다. 유대인(당시 히브리인)은 고대에 이집트에서는 노예로 생활한 피해자였던 반면, 이집트를 벗어나 그들이 도착한 가나안 사람들에게는 침략자였다. 대표적인 전투가 예리코 전투였다. 성경에 묘사된 그대로를 따르면 히브리인들은 평화롭게 살고 있는 예리코(Jericho)에 쳐들어가서 노약자와 어린아이까지 모두 죽였다. 더구나 유대인, 가나안인, 아랍인은 모두 셈족에 속한다. 2023년 10월 7일 이스라엘과 팔레스타인 간에 전쟁이 발발했다. 직접적인 원인은 팔레스타인 무장단체 하마스의 습격이었다. 하마스는 이스라엘 민간인을 학살하고 인질을 납치했다. 변명의 여지가 없는 반인권적 행위이고 범죄이다. 그런데 같은 날 하버드대학교의 하버드 팔레스타인 연대 그룹은 이스라엘을 규탄하는 성명을 발표했다. 더구나 여기에는 35개의 단체가 서명을 했다. 하마스의 민간인 학살과 납치를 생각하면 쉽게 이해하기 어려운 부분이다. 이는 이스라엘과 팔레스타인의 악연 이외에 다른 많은 부분에 대한 이해를 필요로 한다. 이 논문은 첫째 이슬람, 아랍, 중동을 비교했다. 이슬람, 아랍, 중동은 공통분모가 있고 혼용되기도 하는 개념이지만, 서로 다른 개념이고 명확한 구분이 필요하다. 이슬람교 내에서 수니파와 시아파의 갈등은 이슬람교와 기독교의 갈등 못지 않다. 이슬람교 내에서 대립되는 종파간의 정권교체는 서구국가의 정당간의 정권교체와는 전혀 다른 것이다. 원래 이슬람교는 평화롭고 평등한 종교이다. 이슬람 강경파 또는 무장조직이 결코 전체 이슬람을 대표하는 것은 아니다. 둘째 유대인을 고찰하였다. 고대 유대인과 현대 유대인을 고찰하였다. 현대 유대인은 몇 개의 분파가 존재하며, 혈연적 민족이라기 보다는 종교적 민족이다. 그리고 분파들 사이에도 대립과 갈등이 존재한다. 셋째 반유대주의와 시오니즘을 고찰했다. 네 번째로 이스라엘-팔레스타인 전쟁의 원인을 고찰했다. 유대인에 대한 차별, 강대국의 비밀조약과 정치적 음모, 강대국의 이권 개입, 이스라엘 정착촌 건설, 미국의 친이스라엘 정책, 아랍의 분열, 아랍의 반발의 7개의 원인을 고찰하였다. 오늘날 아랍에서의 분쟁의 직접적인 원인은 서구국가들이 만들었다. 과거 식민지배를 하면서 현재의 갈등의 씨앗을 뿌린 서구국가들이 민주주의와 평화를 이야기하는 것은 역설적인 상황이다. 서구 열강이 만들어 놓은 늪에서 생존을 위한 전쟁을 하는 이스라엘과 팔레스타인에게 윤리와 인류애를 요구하는 것은 과거를 망각한 위선적 행동이다.

이스라엘의 안보환경과 국방정책

김강녕 ( Kang-nyeong Kim ) 미래군사학회 2014 한국군사학논총 Vol.3 No.1

This paper is to analyze Israel``s security environment and defense policy. For the purpose of that, this paper searches for Israel``s history and changing security environment, Israel``s defence policy and military strategy, its implications and lessons for Korea, and conclusion. Israel borders Lebanon in the North, Syria in the Northeast, Jordan in the East, Egypt in the Southwest, and the Palestinian territories(or State of Palestine) comprising the West Bank and Gaza Strip on the east and southwest respectively. Jordan and Egypt are the only Arab countries to have made peace with Israel. Israel is a republic in Southwest Asia, on the Mediterranean Sea: established in 1948, in the former British mandate of Palestine, as a primarily Jewish state; 8 disputes with Arab neighbours (who did not recognize the state of Israel), erupted into full-scale wars in 1948, 1956, 1967 (the Six Day War), and 1973 (the Yom Kippur War). The Israel Defense Forces is the sole military wing of the Israeli security forces, and is headed by its Chief of General Staff, the Ramatkal, subordinate to the Cabinet. The Israel Defense Forces(founded during the 1948 Arab.Israeli War) is the military forces of the State of Israel, and consists of the army, air force and navy. The IDF also draws upon the resources of the Military Intelligence Directorate (Aman), which works with the Mossad and Shabak. The IDF has been involved in several major wars and border conflicts in its short history, making it one of the most battle-trained armed forces in the world. The IDF maintains approximately 176,500 active troops and an additional 445,000 reservists. The nation``s military relies heavily on high-tech weapons systems designed and manufactured in Israel as well as some foreign imports. Israel is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons. Israel has about 400 nuclear bombs secretly, and Israel prefers not to discuss the nuclear issue at all. Israel is one of the best equipped militaries in the world and its weapons industry is responsible for many technological advancements in modern warfare. It should come as no surprise, then, that Israel has the capacity to strike its targets with extreme precision. Deterrence also means restoring the standing of the Israel Defence Forces. Israeli military doctrine and its offensive, defensive and deterrence strategies are identified as the most important subcomponents of the security policy. Military service is compulsory in Israel, with men serving three years and women two. Most Israelis are drafted into the military at the age of 18. Men serve three years and women two to three years. In particular, since military service is compulsory in Israel, many young people get a high-tech education unlike any other Although the regional security environment has deteriorated, Israel remains a strong state. Israeli society has displayed remarkable resilience in the past when faced with severe national security tests. Despite the impressionistic reports of a divided Israel, nowadays it is more united than ever, ready to continue to live by its sword. With the right leadership, Israel can make the right choices and weather the current crisis. We should learn many lessons and implication from major features of Israeli defense policy(①Self-reliant national defense posture, ②Reinforcement of military force that value quality over quantity, ③Maintenance of solid deterrence, ④Efficient management of integrated forces and constant reserve forces) and major features of Israeli military strategy(①Preemptive strike, ② Transferring the battlefield to the enemy’s territory, ③Promoting the quickest decisive victory). History may repeat itself if we do not learn our lessons from the sore past that we should be strong enough to repel aggression from any nation. The moment we forget, history will repeat itself. We always should keep in mind the universal lesson of history that we have to prepare for war if we really want peace.

끝날 수 없는 갈등, 이스라엘-하마스 분쟁

임윤갑 ( Yoonkap Lim ) 한국군사학회 2023 군사논단 Vol.116 No.-

On October 7, 2023, Hamas launched a military operation against the Israel. According to various sources, the plan for this operation prepared at least several months to two years. The depth and scale of Hamas, attack was unprecedented. Experts interpreted it as a response to regional changes and Israel’s growing provocations. It seems that Hamas achieved their short-term goals, preventing and blocking Israel’s Al-Aqsa intrusion and allowing political criminals to be liberated from Israeli prisons, However, It doesn’t seem to reach the ultimate goal to see an end to the relationship with Israel yet. In areas where Israel has a coercive edge, the Palestinians, numbering more than 950, are already killed. With Hamas’ surprising and overwhelming offensive just beginning, it is not dear what the end game is or what can be done to achieve long-term gains. It therefore appears to be a priority for Hamas to take both soldiers and civilians hostage to prevent aggressive retaliation from Israel and later exchange them for Palestinian prisoners in Israeli prisons. Israel has moved on from its initial surprise attack and is launching a fierce offensive against the northern Gaza Strip, where the Hamas leadership is expected to be located. However, as time passes, Palestinian hospital attacks and resulting civilian casualties increase rapidly, and negative public opinion in the international community is rapidly spreading. In fact, even before the attack, Netanyahu’s government was facing domestic turmoil due to judicial reform. Therefore, this war is expected to be another important turning point that will determine Israel’s future. With this Hamas attack, Israel’s recent severe political divisions will disappear for a while. Israel will show a more favorable attitude to gain US support. But there is no politician like Sadat in this war, and even with the best intentions, it is difficult to imagine a diplomatic solution to this crisis. The idea of a US-Israel-Saudi deal will likely disappear in the near future. As Israeli security agencies nervously watch over the dangers of Hezbollah missiles and a second front in the north, the United States has dispatched an aircraft carrier to the Mediterranean. This reassures traumatized Israelis and sends a signal that the United States will not remain indifferent to Iranian intervention. However, it appears that it will be difficult for the US foreign policy to avoid criticism for attempting to resolve the problem militarily. During this invasion, the role of the United Nations, the only collective security system in the international community, was difficult to find. The Security Council failed to pass a resolution on the ceasefire and it was eventually transferred to the General Assembly. Regarding the UN, one scholar pointed out the limitations of the UN, saying, The forces that want a peaceful solution are all countries that do not have sufficient influence in the UN.’ As was the case during Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, the UN’s role appears to be being bypassed or gradually diminished. In this situation, Western countries visiting Israel and saying that they will not spare any support for Israel’s right to defense are likely to make a diplomatic solution more difficult.

Demography and national security: The politics of population shifts in contemporary Israel

Monica Duffy Toft 한국외국어대학교 국제지역연구센터 2012 International Area Studies Review Vol.15 No.1

Israel perceives itself to be under a constant and general threat to its existence. Like many other aspects of its security, Israel’s small size relative to its neighbors means that even relatively small demographic shifts may have unexpected and threatening political consequences. Israel’s struggles with security, identity, and demography therefore serve to highlight a relationship not unique to Israel but particularly intense there: a relationship between demographic shifts and state, regional,and interstate security. This article demonstrates that Israel’s demographic shifts have come to be regarded as an existential threat by Israel, and the contemporary salience of demography in Israel explains both (1) Israel’s decision to build a ‘security fence’ between it and the Palestinian Occupied Territories in the West Bank, and (2) the timing of that decision. The article examines Israel’s historical demographic trends and discourse and makes the case that this high-level national policy was a response to the perception among Israel’s leaders that demographic threats to both the Jewish and democratic character of Israel were more grave even than the physical threat of terrorism.

Featured Articles: The United States in the Middle East ; Actually Existing Israel

( Joel Schalit ) 서울대학교 미국학연구소 2012 미국학 Vol.35 No.1

"Israel is neither Europe, nor the Middle East," the commenter wrote. "All of the moral categories you`ve been trained to apply to countries from those regions won`t work. They`re foreign, like you." A self-identified American soldier, but currently enlisted in the Israel Defense Forces, he was making this point in criticizing a journalist for penning a favorable article about an anti-war demonstration in Tel Aviv. For those familiar with the Arab-Israeli conflict, such comments should not be surprising. Israel`s unknowability is one of the fundamental criticisms made against foreigners who choose to take the country to task for its policies towards the Palestinians. Nowhere is this criticism made more often, in recent years, than in the US, where public opinion on Israel has shifted drastically, and Israeli government PR efforts have increased. The ``Israel`` referred to by such media strategies I refer to as "Actually Existing Israel", all Cold War-era puns intended. It refers to both the ``actually existing Israel``, as well as it`s intentional mystification. For my paper, I`ll be discussing how this Israel gets produced, and why it is as much an American event, as it is an Israeli one. The discusssion is derived from my most recent book, Israel vs Utopia (Akashic Books, 2009).