中國現存的漂海記錄及其特徵

劉序楓(Liu, Shiuhfeng) 목포대학교 도서문화연구소 2012 島嶼文化 Vol.0 No.40

16세기 중반 이후 해양활동의 증대와 더불어 동아시아의 난파선에 대한 기록들도 증가하였다. 해양 여행기와 달리 난파기록들은 보통 좀 더 세부적인데, 기록 중에는 불법항해라든지, 밀수, 외교협상과 같은 복잡한 주제들이 포함되어 있기 때문이다. 당시 정부 관리들이 일반적으로 조사를 실시하였고 배의 크기 및 승선자 이름과 수, 적재화물, 항해경로, 난파 위치 및 원인, 구조 과정과 재정적 지원 현황 등에 대한 내용들을 기록 보존하였다. 그러나 二十四史에서와 같이, 청 왕조 이전의 위와 관련된 중국의 기록들은 대부분 개괄적으로 기술되어 있다. 더욱이 明實錄에서의 기록들도 산만하고 불완전하다. 아울러 청왕조 이전에는 난파선에 대한 구조가 제도화되어 있지 않았던 관계로 전체적인 내용을 파악하기가 곤란한 상태이다. 청 왕조에 접어들자, 지역적 혹은 광역적 수준의 기록체계 수립 및 관련 기록들[특히 건륭(乾隆) 통치기(1736~1795) 이후]의 보존에 힘입어 이러한 주제들이 좀 더 자세히 연구될 수 있게 되었다. 최근에 역사적 자료들이 대중에 공개되고 출간된 덕분에 동아시아 난파사고 및 해상표류에 관한 연구는 점차적으로 확대되고 있는 추세이다. 그러나 관련 자료들이 대부분 산만하고 체계적이지 못하며, 현재 연구의 관심이 상당부분 일본과 류큐의 기록물에 초점이 맞춰져 있기 때문에, 중국과 한국에서 관련 자료들을 체계적으로 수집하는 단계에는 아직 접어들지 못했다. 본 저자는 최근 동아시아에서의 난파선에 관한 역사학적 자료들의 수집 및 연구에 몰두하여왔으며 현재까지 청 왕조 기록물 속의 난파 기록 목록 : 외국 선박들에 관한 자료들을 출간하였는데, 이 자료들은 공식적인 중국 기록문서들 중 약 3,000개의 부분 기록들이 포함되어 있다. 위 기록들은 우리로 하여금 청 정부의 난파선 구조 체계의 진화 및 외국 난파선에 대해 취해진 조치에 관해 이해를 하는데 도움을 준다. 또한 이 자료들이 동아시아에서의 난파선 기록에 대한 연구를 촉진할 것으로 본다. 본 논문은 난파선과 해상표류를 다룬 현존하는 중국 공식 기록들을 소개하는 한편, 빠른 시일 내에 외국 기록들과의 비교 및 공동연구 추진이라는 희망과 더불어, 해상표류에 관한 일부 비공식적 기록들에 대해 논하고 있다. With the intensification of maritime activities after the mid-16th century, records on shipwrecks in East Asia increased. Different from sea travelogues, shipwreck records are usually more detailed, for they involve a variety of issues, such as illegal voyage, smuggling, and diplomatic negotiation. Government officials typically conducted investigation and kept detailed accounts of the size of ship, the names and the number of the crew, cargo on board, routes, location and the cause of the shipwreck, process of salvage and monetary support rendered. If the wreck involved a foreign ship, there was also the issue of repatriation. However, Chinese accounts in this regard prior to the Qing dynasty, such as in the Twenty Four Dynastic Histories, are mostly sketchy. In addition, the accounts in the Veritable Records of the Ming Dynasty are also scattered and incomplete. Moreover, prior to the Qing, the salvage of shipwrecks had not been institutionalized, hence it is difficult to grasp the entire picture. Entering the Qing, due to the perfect memorial system at the local and metropolitan levels, plus the preservation of relevant archives(especially after the Qianlong reign 1736~1795), the issue can be explored further. In recent years, due to the fact that historical materials are made public and published, research on East Asian shipwreck and drifting on the sea is increasingly flourishing. However, relevant sources are mostly scattered and not systematic, and the current research focuses mostly on the records in Japan and Ryukyu, hence systematic collection of sources in China and Korea has not been undertaken. This author has devoted to the collection and research of historical materials on shipwrecks in East Asia in recent years and so far published a Catalogue of Shipwreck Records in the Qing Archives : Materials on Foreign Ships, which contains nearly 3,000 pieces of official Chinese documents. These documents allow us to understand the evolution of shipwreck salvage system of the Qing government and the measures taken toward foreign shipwrecks. Also, they will facilitate the research on the history of shipwrecks in East Asia. Besides introducing the extant Chinese official accounts of shipwrecks and drifting on the sea, this article also discusses several unofficial accounts of drifting on the sea, with the hope of comparing them with foreign accounts and facilitating collaborative research in the future.

터너의 <난파선>과 낭만주의적 해양재난

전동호 한국미술이론학회 2012 미술이론과 현장 Vol.14 No.-

Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775-1851) has been widely regarded as the most original and brilliant English landscape painter in the 19th century. Admitted to the Royal Academy Schools in 1789, Turner was a precocious artist and gained the full membership of the prestigious Royal Academy in 1802 at the age of 27. Already in the 1800s he was recognised as a pioneer in taking a new and revolutionary approach to the art of landscape painting. Among his early works made in this period, The Shipwreck, painted in 1805, epitomizes the sense of sublime Romanticism in terms of its dramatic subject-matter and the masterly display of technical innovations. Of course, the subject of shipwreck has a long standing history. Ever since human beings first began seafaring, they have been fascinated as much as haunted by shipwrecks. For maritime societies, such as England, shipwreck has been the source of endless nightmares, representing a constant threat not only to individual sailors but also to the nation as a whole. Unsurprisingly, therefore, shipwreck is one of the most popular motifs in art and literature, particularly during the 18th and 19th centuries. Yet accounts, images and metaphors of shipwreck have taken diverse forms and served different purposes, varying significantly across time and between authors. As such, Turner’s painting registers a panoply of diverse but interconnected contemporary discourses. First of all, since shipwreck was an everyday occurrence in this period, it is more than likely that Turner’s painting depicted the actual sinking in 1805 of the East India Company’s ship ‘The Earl of Abergavenny’ off the coast of Weymouth. 263 souls were lost and the news of the wreck made headlines in major English newspapers at the time. Turner’s painting may well have been his visual response to this tragedy, eyewitness accounts of which were given in great quantity in every contemporary newspaper. But the painting is not a documentary visual record of the incident as Turner was not present at the site and newspaper reports were not detailed enough for him to pictorially reconstruct the entire scene. Rather, Turner’s painting is indebted to the iconographical tradition of depicting tempest and shipwreck, bearing a strong visual resemblance to some 17th-century Dutch marine paintings with which he was familiar through gallery visits and engravings. Lastly, Turner’s Shipwreck is to be located in the contexts of burgeoning contemporary travel literature, especially shipwreck narratives. The late 18th and early 19th century saw a drastic increase in the publication of shipwreck narratives and Turner’s painting was inspired by the re-publication in 1804 of William Falconer’s enormously successful epic poem of the same title. Thus, in the final analysis, Turner’s painting is a splendid signifier leading the beholder to the heart of Romantic abyss conjoing nightmarish everyday experience, high art, and popular literature.

박지원과 메카트니의 중국 인식 비교 - 『열하일기(熱河日記)』와『중국방문사절일기(中國訪問使節日記)』를 중심으로-

김상조 ( Kim Sang Jo ) 한국문학이론과 비평학회 2004 한국문학이론과 비평 Vol.25 No.-

The purpose of this paper was to compare the perspectives on China of Park Jee Won a fellow accompanying Cho Seon envoy Park Myoung Won attending the Emperor Qian- Long’(乾隆)s 70th birthday ceremony in 1780 and of George McCartney the envoy of England to China in 1793 using their travelogues, < Yeoul Ha Diary > and < The Envoy Diary of Visitation to China >, respectively. Yeun Am acknowledged the fact that Qing(淸) Dynasty being founded by a barbarian, not only did it occupy China, but also had maintained the customs since Yo Sun(堯舜). However, it was far from his idea that Cho Seon should submit to Qing as did to Ming(明)Dynasty. While Yeun Am differentiated hempen a Supreme Country (上國)and a Great Country(大國), he suggested that a Great Country is the one that dominates over with a great power and Qing Dynasty is the best example. In this sense, he insisted that Cho Seon should learn Qing, which is hard to see as submissive. He maintained that Cho Seon should learn from Qing the source of strong power i.e. profit making techniques. The aim of McCartney’s visit to China was to make it easier for the imperialism state England to trade with China. Even if an envoy, he, in fact, scrutinized China, as a team leader of China’s exploration. From the detailed observations, he came to conclude that China is nothing more than a shipwreck so that it is very easy for England to defeat. He even reported prospects and defects England is likely to have in a case of war with China. Yeun Am, with a deep understanding of Chinese culture, had a special interest in the Chinese sciences such as the cause of Go Jeung Hak’(考證學)s development. Opposite to Yeun Am, McCartney had no interest on matter. Instead, the focus of his observation was on more practical parts such as Qing’s royal family, ordinary people's lifestyles, and army, etc. While China was under the Qian-Long’s power considered as the most flourishing period of Qing when McCartney visited China, it was only 10 years after that Yeun Am went to China where he was greatly impressed by the affluence and advanced technology of China. It is very unlikely that China went under destruction during only 10 years time. Rather, it can be argued that differences in the perspectives of Yeun Am and McCartney on China emerged from the different development stages of their own countries England acquiring almightily strong power with the success of Industrial Revolution whereas Cho Seon was isolated and underdeveloped. The different views ultimately indicated the position of Cho Seon in those days when compared to other countries.

수중문화유산과 침몰 국가선박의 국제법상 지위와 보호에 관한 연구

이석용 ( Seok Yong Lee ) 안암법학회 2011 안암 법학 Vol.0 No.34

Recovery of artifacts located on the sea floor has become feasible due to advances in marine science and technology. Although traditional laws of salvage and finds had served to solve legal problems raised by recovery of artifacts, international community has become more interested on protection rather than commercial recovery of underwater cultural heritage. With the conclusion and entry into effect of international agreements affecting underwater heritage, we have to courts consider many different areas of law to decide on legal status of ancient artifacts and shipwrecks located on the seafloor : international law of the sea, sovereign immunity law, law of salvage, and law of finds. The Law of the Sea Convention incorporated only 2 articles on legal status of underwater cultural heritage. The convention conferred coastal states jurisdiction over underwater heritage in territorial sea and contiguous zone, but underwater artifacts located in Exclusive Economic Zone(EEZ) and on the continental shelf are left unregulated. The 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage which came into effect in 2009 was adopted to fill a gap left by the LOS Convention. This convention introduced more concrete definitions on important terms to define the scope of application. This convention also introduced provisions governing the legal status of underwater cultural heritages which are located in territorial sea, contiguous zone, EEZ, continental shelf of any coastal state and which are found in the Area. There have been controversy over the legal status of the sunken state vessels and aircraft including warships. Some states maintained that the special legal status and immunities attributable to warships could not be changed due to pass of time without express consent by the flag state. Other states have insisted that it is not acceptable to provide the sunken warships the special legal status such as privileges and immunities suitable only for operable military craft. Situated between the Eurasia Continent and the Japan, Korea is a peninsular state with a history of five thousand years. Given the fact that the seas in the East Asia are shallow and semi-enclosed and that there had been brisk trade between east asian states, the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea have been regarded one of the most important area rich in underwater cultural heritages. Noting international law principles stipulated in the LOS Convention and the Underwater Cultural Heritage Convention, Korea should prepare for a new legal system for the protection of underwater heritages.