마크 트웨인의 '도금시대'와 폴 크루그먼의 '신도금시대'

심계순(Kye soon Shim) 한국아메리카학회 2014 美國學論集 Vol.46 No.1

Mark Twain, a novelist representing the late 19th century American literature, and Paul Krugman, a modern-day Nobel laureate economist, are widely different from each other in many respects. Therefore it appears that one cannot find any kind of similarity between them. But they share one important characteristic in that they are witnesses of the periods in which distributional inequity rose to its highest levels in American history. The late 19th century, which Twain named the 'Gilded Age,' was a period when a new class of industrial captains amassed huge amounts of wealth while a vast majority of farmers and laborers were alienated from the fruits of economic development. Twain was a harsh critic of the rampant materialism and political corruption of his time. However, due to his contradictory attitude, Twain seems to have failed to raise fundamental questions about social Darwinism which largely supported the social and economic order of the Gilded Age With the coming of the New Deal in the 1930s, the gap between the rich and the poor began to narrow and the trend of equalization seemed to take root. Around the end of the 1970s, however, the trend of equalization suddenly came to a halt, and inequality in distribution began to surge at an alarming speed. Soon the degree of inequality went back to the level of the Gilded Age, and Krugman declared that American society had entered the period of the 'New Gilded Age.' Krugman and many critics point out that the long reign of the Republican Party is the main cause of the advent of the New Gilded Age. One may ask whether it will be possible to see the trend of rising inequality reversed in the near future, but such a prospect does not seem likely.

마크 트웨인과 젠더 : 『도금시대』에 나타난 가부장제 비판

허정애(Jeong-Ae Huh) 한국영미어문학회 2009 영미어문학 Vol.- No.93

This paper aims to recapitulate Mark Twain's attitude toward gender by discussing whether he advocates of criticizes patriarchy of the gilded age in America, by analyzing Laura Hawkins and Ruth Bolton, "New Women" characters in his The Gilded Age(1873) In spite of his first novel, Twain's The Gilded Age has been excluded from Twain studies and Laura and Ruth also alienated from critical concerns because they have been treated as exceptional female characters who can't be categorized as Twain's typical "humorous old ladies and silly little girls" Critics have not considered "the old ladies and little girls" to be "women of any substance", of "women as people" But Laura and Ruth, not "the old ladies and little girls" but marriageable adults, are "women of substance" and thus "women as people" who experience repression, anger and frustration living in the patriarchal gilded age Susan Harris, in her article "Four Ways to Inscribe a Mackeral Mark Twain and Laura Hawkins," analyzes only Laura and regards Twain as a writer who advocates patriarchy Harris insists that Twain finishes the novel with Laura's death because it's "a legitimate penalty for women who trespassed on the male sphere" However, unlike Harris' approach, if we analyze both Laura and Ruth together, the novel is interpreted differently In this paper, I attempt not only to revaluate Laura, but also to rehabilitate Ruth who has never been discussed among the discourses about female cahracters of Twain For that purpose I focus on tow elements First, whether Twain's perspective toward Laura is sympathetic of hostile Second, what the significance of the dual plot the novel is In addition, a discussion of other biographical materials show that Twain supported women's suffrage in various ways and gave financial support to the movement Consequently, this paper will reveal the fact that Twain is a critic of patriarchy and thus a writer with feminist tendencies

폭력의 사회경제적 배경과 판례

김철(Chull Kim) 한국사회이론학회 2012 사회이론 Vol.- No.42

논문 필자는 자신에 대한 폭력과 타인에 대한 폭력은 아노미 (anomy, anomie)라는 동전의 양면이라는 명제(Durkeim, 1952:355)에서 출발한다. 뒤르케임이 증명한 것은, 자살률의 증가는 파산 사건의 증가와 상관관계가 있다는 것이다. 파산 사 건과 자살률의 증가가 동반했던, 뒤르케임이 증언한 시대의 특징은 아노미의 개념으로 설명되어 왔다; 그러나, 뒤르케임이 증언 한 시대가, 장기 대공황(the Long Depression 1873-1897)시대라는 것은, 논문 필자가 경제사와 법제사를 원용해서 최근에야 밝힌 것이다.(김 철, 2010.11: 97-142)1 최근 2007년과2010년의 통계는, 한국이 자살률에 있어서 OECD 국가 중 가장 높다는 것을 보여준다. 자살률과 폭력의 증가는, 뒤르케임이 _자살론_에서 개진한 아노미가 증가하는 사회의 특징이라고본다. 높은 자살률/ 증가하는 폭력의 사회경제적 특징에 주목한다면, 최근까지의 한국의 사회경제적 배경은 역사적으로 관찰할 때, 어떻게 파악될 것인가? 필자는 폴 크루크만( Paulkrugman )과 스티글리츠 ( Joseph Stiglitz )에 의지하여 한국의 양극화가 진행된 경위를 외환위기 때부터 세계금융위기 이후 최근까지 일별한다. 이 거시적 분석은 이미 잘 알려진 세계경제사와 법제사에서의 통찰을 시대의 보편으로 의지하고 한국 의 특수성을 부분적으로 관찰하는 것이다. 폭력과 자살의 사회경제적 원경을 세계사적으로 본 뒤, 논문 필자는 제3장부터(경제사나 법제사적으로 이미 특화 된) 자유지상주의, 신보수주의(동의어: 신자유주의) 시대에, 최근까지의 문명 세계의 폭력문제를 지방 정부와 법원이 어떻게 다루어 왔는가, 어떤 영향을미쳤는가에 대한 각론적 고찰에 들어간다. 구체적으로는 1999년 콜롬바인 고교 총기난사사건 이후 게임과 같은 폭력적 매체물이 범행 원인으로 언론에서 지목 되고 (박종현, 2012.09.14:2) 1999년 경부터 규제 입법 시도가 군, 시, 주 정부에 의해 시도 되었으나, 단 한건의 예외를 제외하고, 연방지방법원, 연방항소법원, 대법원에 의해서, 규제 입법은 무효화 되었다.1999년 이후 최종 2011년까지 집중적으로 나타난 폭력적 비디오 게임 규제 입법에 대한 미국 연방법원들의 판례를 “그 시대적특징에 주목하여” 시계열(time sequence)로 파악하여, 시대에대한 경제사, 사회사와 법제사에 근거한 분석을 먼저 행했다. 이후에 전통 법학의 해석학적인 방식인 판결 언어에 대한 해석을 시도하였다. 결과는 연속 된 11개의 판결 중 한 개를 제외하고, 거의 전부인 10개의 판례가 초기 자유주의 시대의 개인주의적 인간관과 사회관(김 철, 2010.08; 126)(김 철, 2010.11:489)을 반영하고 있었다. “고전 자유주의는 개인을 싸고 있는조직의 힘, 공동체의 규정력을 최소로 파악 하였다.” 그렇다면,이 연속된 10개의 판례(2001년 3월 인디아나주법,2002년 세인트 루이스시의 조례(예외), 2004년 워싱톤 주, 2005년 일리노이 주법, 2006년 미시간 주법, 2006년 7월 미네소타 주법,2006년 11월 루이지아나 주법, 2007년 8월 캘리포니아 주법에대한 연방지방 법원, 2009년 9월 캘리포니아 주법에 대한 연방항소법원, 2011년 캘리포니아 주법에 대한 연방 대법원)의 위헌 결정을 일관하는 것이 무엇이겠는가? 미성년자와 청소년의 보호는 가족사나 개인적인 일에 속하고, 미성년자와 청소년의신변 가까이 있는 군, 시, 주 정부 같은 지방 자치단체의 규제사항에 속하지 않는 다는 태도이다.2 역사적으로 이런 법원의태도는, 자유방임주의가 기조이던 초기 산업사회 시대의 것이었다(김 철, 2010.11: 118-119, 110-112). 놀랄만한 것은 주로 2001-2011년 까지 이루어진, 아메리카 연방법원의 10개의판결에서 나타난 인간관과 사회관이, 전혀 다른 시대인-법제사 에서의 도금시대(the Gilded Age 1865-1900)(Mclosky,1956)에 해당하는-, 1897년과 1905년의 두 판례3에서 나타난,자유 방임적 개인주의4의 인간관과 사회관과 거의 같다. 다시경제사의 시대를 유추 해 보기로 하자. 자유 방임적 개인주의가 나타난 법제사에서의 도금시대 (1865-1900)는 경제사에서의 장기대공황 또는 침체시대 (1873-1897)와 대략 일치 하고, 그시대의 기념비적인 두 판례가 나타난 1897년과 1905년은 장기대 침체시대에 더 가까이 일치 하고 있다. 거꾸로 유추해 들어간다면, 방금 지적한 약 110년 이전 의 기념비적인 판례의 기본적 가치와 태도가 거의 접근 하는, 2001년-2011년 간의 최신판례들은 …… 이미 증명된 경제사에서의 장기대침체 시대의특징과 같다면, …… 자유지상주의 (libertareanism)라 부르든, 신보수주의(neo-conservatism)라 부르든, 신자유주의(neo-liberaslism)라고 부르든, 인간의의 삶에서 커뮤니티와 사회를 거의 제외하는 이런 태도는 다른 시대에도 나타난다. 즉 대 공황 (1929-1939)에 이르는 진입로를 번영과 거품으로 건설했던, 10년 간(1919-1929)의 재즈시대의 자유방임적 개인주의와 같아 보인다.따라서 2001-2011년의 연속 판례들의 주된 몸통 부분이 나타난1999-2007년까지의 기간은, 비로소 세계금융위기(2008-)와 유럽 재정위기에 이르는 아노미와 거품을 예비한 기간이었다는것이 드러나게 된다. “Violence to oneself and other people belongs to two sides of a coin; the name of the coin is Anomy” is a scientific preposition of Durkeim. Durkeim proved the correlation between increase of bankrupcy cases and increase of suicide. In his days, he coined the term Anomy and discribed a society ridden over by anomy. In the pre-published articles, the author has sought to prove the days of Durkeim were, in economic history and legal history, the Long Depression period(1873-1897). In the statistics of 2007 & 2010, Korea has shown the highest rate of suicide among OECD countries. The increase of suicide and violence observed in Korean society seems to have resemblance to Durkeim`s anomy society in the Long Depression period, the author argues. The author tries to have a look at the past impact of East Asia Foreign Exchange Crisis(1997-1998) and Global Financial Crisis(2008) to find out the procedure of the bi-polar phenomena and unequality of income in Korea. Relying upon Joseph Stiglitz and Paul Krugman, the author tries to explain how Korea has increasingly developed socio-economic anomy amidst global scale infiltration of libertareanism and neo-conservatism. The final part of this article deals with U. S. federal Courts decisions on regulation of violent video games to verify the global-scale impact of libertareanism and neo-conservatism. Two tier approach is adopted. The first is historical approach ; the outcome of historical approach is as following. That the period(1999-2007) when the main body of sequential federal court decisions was made seems to roughly overlapped with 10 years( 1998-2008 ) before global financial crisis(2008); The period was characterized by deregulation of finance ( 1999-2008 ) and the remote influence of libertarianism (since 1989 ) and Neo-liberalism. (since 1981) The other approach is classical contents analysis of decisions of federal courts under the influence of Richard Posner. After two-tier approach, the author seeks to criticize the majority opinion of U. S. Supreme Court on nullifying regulation of violent video games.

마크 트웨인과 남북 전쟁 이후의 자본주의 : 『도금시대』를 중심으로

성경준 ( Kyung Jun Sung ) 근대 영미소설 학회 2006 근대 영미소설 Vol.13 No.2

This article aims to examine Mark Twain`s attitude toward his contemporary capitalism in The Gilded Age. Although this work was co-authored with Charles Dudley Warner, it specifically exhibits his ideas and relationship with the Gilded Age capitalism and its various phenomena. The most remarkable aspect of the Gilded Age capitalism is the speculation which pervades all regions and classes of America. All characters in the work are directly and indirectly related to this turbulence of speculation and corruption following it. Twain portrays and satirizes the speculation and corruption of the Gilded Age capitalism in all levels and regions of America in the work. Especially, railroad plays the most important part in the unfolding of speculation. Railroad, on the one hand, symbolizes development and hope to western people, and, on the other hand, brings catastrophes to their fates. In this process capitalism of western regions is also completely dominated by the finance and industry of the East. In the work the politics of Washington is the center of all these speculation and corruption. It is described as the pandemonium of corruption where hypocritical and corrupt politicians and lobbyists such as Senate Dilworthy and Representative Buckstone make conspiracies against one another. New York`s financial and industrial companies bribe them and obtain enormous appropriations from the national treasury. More interesting thing is that although Twain is critical of speculators, capitalists and all corrupt people, he applauds Sellers and agrees to his vitality and energy. It comes from the fact that his vitality and energy represents those of his contemporary capitalism. On the other hand, Twain takes side with him in that he belongs to the middle class or petty bourgeois aspirants in the survival game of the Gilded Age capitalism. This eventually reveals Twain`s class positioning in his contemporary capitalism.

Reforming the Social Gospel in the New Gilded Age-The Case of Extreme Economic Inequality and the Church’s Responsibility for Macroeconomic Just

Ilsup Ahn 한국기독교사회윤리학회 2024 기독교사회윤리 Vol.59 No.-

Since the late 1970s, the US has begun to adopt and practice neoliberal ideol-ogy entailing significant structural changes not only to its economy and politics, but also to its society, culture, and even religious life. As a result of this totalistic politico-economic experimentation, the world has now witnessed an unprecedented level of economic/wealth inequality between the haves and the have-nots, between the top 1 percent and the bottom 50 percent. Along with the idea of endless competition, inequality has become an undeniable trait of a neoliberal world. As economist Joseph Stiglitz rightly warned in his 2012 The Price of Inequality, the growing economic and wealth disparity poses a formidable threat to American democracy. The purpose of this paper is to explore theological solutions to the social ills of neoliberal governance of the 21st-century global economy. I especially focus on the global phenomenon of the rising economic and wealth inequality caused by neoliberal governance. In so doing, I employ a comparative historical analysis of two periods: the Gilded Age (from the 1870s to the late 1890s) and the New Gilded Age (from the late 1970s to today). These historical periods are marked by extreme economic inequality between the rich and the poor despite many characteristic differences between these two ages. Through this comparative historical analysis and critique, I will attempt to achieve two goals: first, to lay out a new ecclesial principle of justice for the church’s engagement in neoliberalism; second, to specify the church’s ecclesial roles for advancing macroeconomic justice in an age of neoliberalism. The purpose of this exploration is to help the church become a more responsible agent in meeting the challenges of the New Gilded Age.

신자유주의 시대 경쟁과 과시

김철(Chull Kim) 한국사회이론학회 2012 사회이론 Vol.- No.41

이 글은 "한국 사회와 과시현상"이라는 학회 주제를 계기로 쓰인 것이나, 발표자는 과시현상의 배경이 되는 시대의 특징에 더 주의하였다. 즉, 최초로 문명사에서 과시 현상이 나타난 도금시대(1865∼1900) 또한 거의 동시인 장기대침체 시대(1873∼1897)그리고 세계대공황의 원인을 제공한 재즈시대(1919∼1929)에 공통된 특징을 추출하여 최현대의 시대 사조 중 어떤 것이 이러한 시대와 공통적인가를 파악하려 하였다. 그 결과는 1980년이후 산업 사회를 풍미한 신자유주의가 도금시대, 장기대침체시대, 재즈시대와 공통적인 것으로 일단 파악되었다. 따라서 현대 한국 사회의 과시 현상은 신자유주의와 깊은 관계가 있다고 보고 우선 신자유주의(neo-liberalism)의 위치와 신자유주의가 최근까지 한국 사회에 미친 영향을 거시적으로 논하는 것으로 시작하였다. 최근의 과시 문화(conspicuous culture)에 대해서, 베블런(Veblen) 전통 이후 과시 문화의 주된 내용을 베블런의 시대에 소급해서 음미하였다. 다음에 최근 한국에서 논의되는 과시문화에 대해서는 한국사회이론학회 2011년 후기학술대회 "과시하는 한국사회"에서 논의된 내용을 중심으로 논의하였다. This paper is written for the seminar titled Korean Society and Conspicuous Phenomena organized by the Korean Society of Social Theory. The author`s concern is laid upon the historical background of conspicuous culture, which had appeared in Long Depression Period(1873∼1897). Gilded Age(1865∼1900) and Jazz Age(1919∼ 1929). Legal history, economic history, and U.S Supreme Court history is concerned. The author tries to find common characteristics of these three historical periods in human civilization; Laisse faire liberalism is common to the three main period. In 21th Century, conspicuous culture in Korea seems to have root in the socio-economic soil of Neo-Liberalism which has prevailed over past-industrial nations since 30 years ago, the author argues. Conspicuous culture had been observed, recorded and reviewed by Thorstein Veblen at first in 1899 and his Theory on Leisure Class became famous during early Great Depression in 1931. Recent conspicuous culture can be reviewed with Veblen`s findings. This paper uses other presentations of Korean Society of Social Theory for fruitful findings on Korea & conspicuous culture.

미국 사회, 무엇이 '신도금시대'의 도래를 가져왔나?

이준구(Joon Koo Lee) 서울대학교 경제연구소 2013 經濟論集 Vol.52 No.1

지난 30여 년 동안 미국 사회의 분배상태는 지속적으로 불평등 심화의 길을 걸어왔다. 1970년대 말부터 본격적으로 가속화되기 시작한 불평등의 심화는 특히 최상위 소득계층의 약진이 두드러지는 양상을 보였다. 모든 경제에서 보편적으로 작용하고 있는 불평등 심화의 요인, 예를 들어 슈퍼스타의 등장, 숙련편향기술변화, 그리고 세계화의 진전 등이 미국에서도 작용하고 있었을 것이 분명하다. 그러나 이것들만으로는 미국 사회에서 일어나고 있는 불평등 심화 현상의 독특한 성격을 충분하게 설명해주지 못한다. 미국 사회에서 최근 나타나고 있는 불평등 심화 현상을 제대로 이해하기 위해서는 최상위 소득계층의 약진이 두드러지는 이유를 밝혀내야 한다. 최상위 소득계층의 주류를 구성하고 있는 집단은 기업의 임원들이며, 1970년대 말 이래 이들의 소득은 급격한 증가추세를 보여 왔다. 이와 같은 현상이 나타난 데 대해 최고경영자를 비롯한 최고위직 임원에게 높은 보수를 지급하는 것은 기업의 관점에서 볼 때 이득이 되기 때문이라고 보는 견해가 있다. 반면에 임원 자신의 이익을 추구하는 적극적 행위의 결과로서 이들의 보수가 급격하게 상승하기 시작했다고 보는 견해도 있다. 불평등의 심화는 최상위 소득계층의 약진과 더불어 하위소득계층의 후퇴라는 양극화의 양상을 띤다. 미국 사회의 독특한 여건이라는 관점에서 하위소득계층의 후퇴를 가져온 주요인을 찾아보면 가장 두드러지는 것이 바로 제도적 특성이다. 1970년대 말 이전에는 성장의 과실을 모든 계층에 고루 나누는 데 주안점을 둔 제도적 기반이 마련되어 있었다. 이에 비해 그 이후의 제도적 특성은 약화된 노조, 노동시장 유연화, 낮은 최저임금으로 대표되고 있었다. 이와 같은 제도적 특성의 변화는 필연적으로 하위 소득계층의 후퇴를 가져오게 되었다. 이와 더불어 1980년대 이래 지속적으로 보수화의 길을 달려온 정치적 풍향의 변화가 불평등의 심화를 가져온 주요 원인이었다고 보는 견해도 있다. 정치적 보수화가 최저임금 실질가치의 인상 억제처럼 저소득층에게 불리한 정책을 채택하게 만드는 압력으로 작용하는 한편, 탈규제를 통해 승자독식의 구조를 더욱 강화시키는 역할을 했을 가능성이 있다. 지난 30여 년 동안 미국 사회에서 부자들의 목소리가 끊임없이 더 커져 온 결과 불평등의 심화를 완화할 적극적인 대응은 생각할 수조차 없는 상황이 조성되었다는 지적에 분명한 일리가 있다. The inequality in the distribution of income in the U.S. has increased continuously during the past three decades. The rapid pace of the progress of polarization has prompted some people to talk about the advent of the new gilded age. It is interesting to note that the long-run trend of equalization lasting almost for four decades suddenly reversed to the trend of increasing inequality around the end of the 1970s. It is not only in the U.S. that one can observe the trend of increasing inequality, although the degree is much milder in other countries. Economists have come up with such theories as the economics of superstar, skill-biased technological change hypothesis and globalization hypothesis to explain factors that make the distribution of income more unequal in modern economies. But these theories cannot explain the unique characteristics of increasing inequality in the U.S. satisfactorily. To understand the recent trend of increasing inequality in the U.S. properly, it is necessary to figure out why the share of top income earners has increased so rapidly. The majority of top income earners are business executives and it is true that their earnings have increased disproportionately since the end of the 1970s. It is probable that firms decide voluntarily to pay their top executive hefty sums of money because they believe that it is in their interest to do it. But some argue that business executives manage to raise their own salaries by using their influence on the board of directors. A large part of the other feature of polarization in the U. S., that is, the radical decrease in the share of low income class can be explained by the change in institutions. Around the end of the 1970s, the institutional structure which was somewhat favorable toward more equal distribution began to be replaced by the one which had the potential of making income distribution less equal. Moreover, the change in political atmosphere which was characterized by increasing influence of conservatism is thought to be closely related to increasing inequality. Such a change in political atmosphere led to the strengthening of the characteristics of winner-take-all economy by deregulation on the one hand, and the further impoverishing of low income class by freezing minimum wages on the other hand.

미국 도금시대(Gilded Age) 미술에 나타난 차의 미학과 문화정치학

조은영(Eun young Cho) 국제차문화학회 2016 차문화ㆍ산업학 Vol.33 No.-

산업화의 진전과 자연 훼손: 생태적 사유의 태동

강규한 서울대학교 미국학연구소 2009 미국학 Vol.32 No.2

The period of industrial growth in American history from the Age of Jackson (1828-1836) to the Gilded Age (1865-1900) can be marked as one of the most significant stages in the development of the American view of nature. This period saw more widespread environmental destruction as a consequence of accelerating industrialization. It is worth noting that an ecological thinking also arose in an attempt to cope with the destruction of nature. Literary works of Henry David Thoreau witness the dawning of ecological thinking in response to industrial growth and environmental destruction. In particular, Walden, obviously his masterpiece, vividly portrays the process of self-relinquishment and shifting away from homopocentricism. Thoreau’s vision of the co-extension of the human body with the inanimate earth is also offered in this work. Of greater significance, however, may be the moral reform and temperance advocated by Thoreau: self-awakening and self-restraint are crucial for human being to have access to Nature in the face of increasingly powerful technology and industry. Thoreau’s ecological thinking and practice can be interpreted as a part of the response of the American Mind to the industrial development and environmental destruction. This interpretation can be substantiated by the fact that Thoreau has been regarded as a key point of reference in numerous kinds of ecological and environmental discourses. The period of industrial growth in American history from the Age of Jackson (1828-1836) to the Gilded Age (1865-1900) can be marked as one of the most significant stages in the development of the American view of nature. This period saw more widespread environmental destruction as a consequence of accelerating industrialization. It is worth noting that an ecological thinking also arose in an attempt to cope with the destruction of nature. Literary works of Henry David Thoreau witness the dawning of ecological thinking in response to industrial growth and environmental destruction. In particular, Walden, obviously his masterpiece, vividly portrays the process of self-relinquishment and shifting away from homopocentricism. Thoreau’s vision of the co-extension of the human body with the inanimate earth is also offered in this work. Of greater significance, however, may be the moral reform and temperance advocated by Thoreau: self-awakening and self-restraint are crucial for human being to have access to Nature in the face of increasingly powerful technology and industry. Thoreau’s ecological thinking and practice can be interpreted as a part of the response of the American Mind to the industrial development and environmental destruction. This interpretation can be substantiated by the fact that Thoreau has been regarded as a key point of reference in numerous kinds of ecological and environmental discourses.

이글스턴의 『메트로폴리스빌의 수수께끼』를 통한 트웨인과 워너의 『도금시대』의 셀러스 다시보기

이광진 한국아메리카학회 2023 美國學論集 Vol.55 No.2

Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner's The Gilded Age has received less academic attention than Twain's other major works. While prior interpretations have focused on the novel's criticisms of American political, legal, and financial systems, this paper argues that these interpretations ignore the fundamental framework of the novel. Focusing on the character of Sellers, the paper argues that he represents the negative businessman, similar to Plausiby in Edward Eggleston's novel The Mystery of Metropolisville. Sellers's prominent characteristics of loquacity and business imagination are represented in his map, which he uses to promote his fraudulent schemes. This comparison suggests that The Gilded Age can be interpreted as a critique of the dangers of capitalism and the rise of the negative businessman in the Gilded Age.