先山業化時代(1500~1700) London의 成長

이헌균 安東大學 1983 安東大學 論文集 Vol.5 No.1

The Growth of London was the most particular development in English urban society between 1500 and 1700. London`s importance was growing in the period. The most obvious aspect of metropolitan growth in the period was demographic. It seems probable that the number of inhabitants in London rose from about 60,000 (about 2.6% of England population) at the start of the sixteenth century to 575,000 (about 10.4% of England population) in 1700. London`s demographic growth was due not to natural increase but to provincial imigrants. Demographic growth of London resulted in the expansion of the areas beyond the city limits, especially to the east with the poor and to the west with the wealthy. Not less important was the rapid growth of the London port. The port made its development through 16~17C., became the centre of foreign trade in Western Europe, and controlled two parts of the total domestic trading amounts in 1700. Closely related to the growth of the port was the development of several major industries, such as shipbuilding, sugar refining, textile manufacturing, silk weaving, dyeing, metalworking, and tanning etc. Another growth in London occurred in services and professions in the period. Shops, schools, beauty shops, coffee houses, theaters and public houses were developed and publications of newspapers and books were increased. Legal professions were developed and the number of scriveners, physicians, apothecaries, bookbinders, astrologers and schoolmasters was multiplied. As the result of these growth London was very different from the typical pre-industrial city for which Sjorberg accounts and had many side effects: food riots, sporadic attacks on aliens, guild conflicts, the great number of slums, the lack of sanitary arrangements in the majority of houses, the prevalence of poverty, unemployment and crime, the frequent plagues and the pollution of smoke and dust etc. The causes of London`s growth were national population growth, the diversity of London'`s mixed economy, good condition to satisfy the demands generated by the growth of conspicuous consumption, the advantage metropolis enjoyed as the country's political pattern toward the direction which could helped these growth. These metropolitan expansion had great effect on politics, social behaviors, and economy. London`s influence in England politics was caused by the consequence of its size, its close proximity to central government and parliament, its growing wealth, and its role in making public opinion through the monopoly of news media, and was witnessed in the Puritan Revolution, Restoration, the Glorious Revolution, and struggle with France. London also acted as a powerful solvent of the customs, prejudices and modes of action of traditional, rural England. But the greatest effect of London`s growth occurred in the economy. Metropolitan expansion has been seen as giving a major boost to the internal trade, agricultural specialization and product, many technical improvements which were to come to a fuller fruition during the classical years of the industrial revolution, manufacturing industries including shipbuilding, and the development of transport system.

찰스 2세

이헌균 역사교육학회 1990 역사교육논집 Vol.13·14 No.1

윌리엄 3세 시대의 국교회

이헌균 역사교육학회 2007 역사교육논집 Vol.39 No.-

<Abstract> Anglican Church in the Reign of William III Lee, Hun-kyun England had to solve the problems regarding religion first after the Glorious Revolution caused by James II's religious policies for the Catholics. As a solution, the Comprehension Bill and the Toleration Bill were submitted to the House. The former which was considered seriously by the High Churchmen failed to pass. But the latter which was considered less important passed the House due to the political considerations of Tory-Anglicans. The Toleration Act neither allowed the dissenters to enter into offices nor gave them complete religious freedom. But, in spite of its limited features, it served a key role in the long run. Namely, this act granted an opportunity of establishing religion's plural traits by admitting varieties of religions legally and letting the Presbyterians join the dissenters' camps after giving up their comprehension completely. Finally, it made the first step for giving British people complete freedom of worship. Due to William's toleration policies, the power of the Anglicans got weaker as time went by and clergymen and lay believers in conformity continued complaining about William III's religious policies. So the Church of England tried to recover its influence with various kinds of efforts, but it wasn't successful. In this circumstance, pamphlet writers insisted on the full restoration of Anglican Church in the end of the 1690s with the support of a party of the High Church politicians and clergymen. And then Convocation was summoned in 1701. However, The era of William III came to an end in the failure of the restoration of the pre-civil war position of the Anglican Church.

도버(Dover) 비밀조약:그 풀리지 않는 의문들

이헌균 대구사학회 2004 대구사학 Vol.77 No.-

The secret treaty of Dover was concluded on May 22, 1670 in a week after CharlesⅡ's sister Henrietta, duchess of Orleans, arrived at Dover harbor under the guise of visiting her family. The treaty was the linchpin of his diplomatic policies as well as an enigma, because it not only changed his policies to pro-French and anti-Holland but also had many doubtful points. These were caused by the fact that the relevant parties to this treaty didn't make clear their thoughts and motivations, the fact that related materials were short due to intentional destruction of them and the fact that materials weren't also clear because of the limitation of translations of the related materials and the lack of the integrities of writers. The first question was why Charles clarified his conversion to Catholicism and included this fact into the treaty and the second one was what motivated Charles to conclude this treaty. And the last one was if his pro-France and anti-Holland policy concluded by the Dover treaty was beneficial for England or not. Though many scholars presented various opinions about the previous two questions, they couldn't find an answer that all could agree on. But, when it comes to the last one, unlike insistences of the Catholics and a group of historians who appeared to take advantage of reconciliation mood between England and France in the 1920s, people came to an agreement that his anti-Holland and pro-France policy was the biggest mistake he made during the whole period of his reign.

제임스 2세의 의회 자파채우기 운동

이헌균 역사교육학회 1999 역사교육논집 Vol.23·24 No.-

실차 시험을 통한 ER 현가장치의 성능평가

이헌균,최승복,한승직,장유진,이성범,Lee, Heon-Gyun,Choe, Seung-Bok,Han, Seung-Jik,Jang, Yu-Jin,Lee, Seong-Beom 대한기계학회 2000 大韓機械學會論文集A Vol.24 No.2

This paper presents performance characteristics of a semi-active suspension featuring continuously variable ER (electro-rheological) dampers. These are evaluated through the field test of a passeng er car. Four ER dampers (two for front and two for rear part) are manufactured and their field-dependent damping properties are experimentally investigated. The damping force responses to step input fields are also identified by employing small size of high voltage amplifiers which are made adaptable to the field test. A skyhook controller considering the vertical, pitch and roll motions is formulated and incorporated with a car to be tested. The field test is then undertaken in order to evaluate both comfortability and steering stability showing bump, dive and squat responses.

왕정복고 체제: 종교

이헌균 역사교육학회 2006 역사교육논집 Vol.37 No.-

Restoration Settlements: Religion Lee, Hun-kyun The traditional ruling class-the aristocracy and the gentry-who had broken down the Anglican Church organization in the 1640s wanted to restore the Church of England as the time goes by. It was because of the facts that they were disappointed at the presbyterians' strict principles and erections of sects, that they had no mind to depart from the Church, and that they lost their traditional political influences. At the Convention there were attempts to make the tolerant religious settlement that Charles and Clarendon had promised in the Declaration of Breda. But these attempts were frustrated. So it has been recovered quickly along with the Restoration. All over the country, chapters were reconstructed, administrative affairs of bishops restored, the church courts revived, and the ordination was made publicly. The Cavalier Parliament made a series of penal laws against the dissenters, called the Clarendon Code-Corporation Act, Act of Uniformity, the first and second Conventicle Acts, Five Mile Act-to exterminate the dissenters from England, taking the opportunity of the Venner's rising. The condition of re-established Anglican Church along with the Restoration was outwardly recovered as much as that of the Church of England before the rebellion, but actually it wasn't. It was because the dissenters survived strong suppressions of the Anglican Church against the expectations of the Church of England. The reasons were that the king continued supporting religious toleration, all nobility and gentry objected to suppressing the dissenters, and most local administrators except in special periods or except of special religious sects-for example, Quakers-didn't carry out penal laws severely.

復古王政 初期 英國의 外交政策 - 폴투칼, 스페인 및 프랑스와의 관계를 중심으로 -

李憲均 안동사학회 1994 안동사학 Vol.1 No.-

영국의 1710년 총선거

이헌균 安東大學校 史學會 1996 安東史學 Vol.2 No.1

1710년의 선거는 Sacheverell 사건의 결과 불어닥친 국민들의 국교회에 대한 열정과 계속되는 전쟁에 대한 국민들의 불만을 재확인한 Robert Harley가 여왕의 도움을 얻어 Godolphin 대신단 및 Whig를 권좌에서 몰아내고 Tory 중심의 새로운 대신단을 구성함으로써 실시 되게 된다. 물론 정당 중심이 아닌 여왕 중심의 정치를 그 이상으로 삼고 있던 Harley는 어느 한 정당의 지나친 의석 확보와 권력 장악을 원하지 않고 있었기 때문에 처음에는 1711년에 치르기로 되어 있는 총선거를 앞당길 생각이 없었으며 Whig와의 계속적인 협상을 통해 일부 온건한 Whig들을 대신단에 붙잡아 두려고 노력했으나, 이 노력이 실패로 돌아가고 Tory들이 의회 해산을 강력히 주장함으로써 마지 못해 1710년 10월로 앞당겨 총선을 치르기로 결정하게 되었던 것이다. 그 결과 대신단의 교체 문제, Sacheverell 박사에 대한 탄핵과 재판 문제 그리고 계속되는 전쟁 문제 등이 이 선거에서 중요한 쟁점으로 등장하게 되었다.

名譽革命後의 臨時遵敎問題

이헌균 安東大學 1986 安東大學 論文集 Vol.8 No.1

Occasional Conformity practice was an outgrowth of the Restoration Settlement. But this practice became one of the most important problems, and created violent controversies between Tory and Whig after the Glorious Revolution (1688). Tories opposed the practice, and Whigs supported it. These attitudes of both parties toward the practice seemed to be reflection of differences of both parties` view of religion. Occasional Conformity controversies vehemently went on in and outside the parliament. Controversies outside the parliament began in 1697, when Daniel Defoe criticized the practice. But it was intensified during parliamentary struggles on the issue. Opposers to the practice argued these; ① One can be a Conformist or a Dissenter, but not both, and thus Occasional Conformity is a contradiction in terms, ② Occasional Conformists bring their bodies to us, but leave their consciences behind them, therefore they become not a member of the church but an intruder. Supporters to the practice proclaimed those; ① Occasional Conformist`s Communion with Church of England is Communion with Catholic church, and not with a party. ② When dissenters are called to an office, the law requires the Occasional Comformity. That`s the reason they do it. And the doing what the law requires is no fault. On the other hand, parliamentary struggles on the issue lasted just over two years, from November 1702, when the first Occasional Conformity bill was introduced in the House of Commons, until December 1704, when the 3rd bill was repealed in the House of Lords. All three bills were introduced in the Commons, and passed the Commons, but all were destroyed by the Lords. Tories at last succeeded to make the Occasional Conformity bill into the act by the well-calculated support of Whigs in 1711. But the act failed to live up to the Tories` expectations, and it was repealed in 1719. At any rate, both parties` vehement struggles on the issue in and outside the parliament became fuel in the conflict between Tory and Whig in this period.