독일 통일과 동독 역사교육의 몰락

이병련 고대사학회 1999 사총 Vol.50 No.-

바이마르 시기의 역사교과서에 나타난제1차 세계대전

이병련 한국독일사학회 2013 독일연구 Vol.- No.26

Dieser Aufsatz befasst sich mit dem Geschichtsbild vom Ersten Weltkrieg in den Schulgeschichtsbuechern, waehrend der Weimarer Republik, insbesondere in der Mitte der 1920er Jahre, wo die Republik und Demokratie nach Aussen hin etwas stabiler schien. Von den zahlreichen Schulgeschichtsbuechern wurde das damals am meisten benutzte Buch von Kumsteller untersucht. Als Massstab der Untersuchung wurde Sigfried Kaweraus “Denkschrift” herangezogen. Im Vergleich zu den Darstellungen der meisten Schulgeschichtsbuechern vertrat Kawerau eine Minderheit des reformerischen Geschichtsunterrichts. Er hat Frieden, Voelkerversoehnung und Demoktatie als die Kriterien seiner Untersuchung gesetzt. Aber die ueberwiegende Mehrheit der Schulgeschichtsbuecher vertrat das Geschichtsbild, dass der Erste Weltkrieg fuer Deutschland ein Verteidigungskrieg war, und Deutschland durch den Versailler Vertrag ‘ungerecht’ zum Opfer gezwungen wurde. Es ist die Rede von der ‘Schuldluege’, nicht ‘Mitschuld’. Von den Greueltaten des Krieges ist nichts zu finden. Von den traditionenllen Geschichtsdarstellungen weiter uebernommen, waren die Herrscher, Dynastien und die Helden, in diesem Fall Hindenburg und Ludendorff, stark betont. Exklusiver Nationalismus und ‘Volksgemeinschaft’ steht im Vordergrund der Darstellungen. Haeufig emotional benutzte Begriffe, wie ‘Feind’ setzen Geschichte auf das Niveau der patriotischen Propaganda herab. Ansaetze zur Nazi Ideologie sind schon vorhanden, wie der Fuehrerkult, die Dolchstosslegende, der Revision vom Versailler Vertrag und die Unbesiegbarkeit der deutschen Wehrmacht. Im Gegensatz zu den Hoffnungen von Kawerau schien der Geschichtsunterricht, waehrend der Weimarer Zeit, zur politischen und geschichtlichen Basis fuer das Akzeptieren der deutschen Bevoelkerung von Hitler, Nazi-Diktatur und zweitem Weltkrieg beizutragen.

독일 역사 교과서에 나타난 나치독재와 홀로코스트 (2)

이병련 한국독일사학회 2012 독일연구 Vol.- No.24

Dieser Aufsatz hat versucht, das Geschichtsbild des Holocausts und der Kriegsverbrechen während der Zeit der nationalsozialistischen Diktatur und des 2. Weltkrieges in den deutschen Schulgeschichtsbüchern zu untersuchen, die seit 1980 bis heute erschienen sind. Dabei wurde dieses Geschichtsbild mit jenem verglichen, das in den Schulgeschichtsbüchern vor 1980 vorherrschte. Das Leitbild der Schulgeschichtsbücher von 1950/60 war die nationale Enttäuschung durch die Niederlage des Krieges. Hauptschuld der Kriegsniederlage trage Hitler und das Regime, während das Volk als Opfer der Nazidiktatur und des Krieges dargestellt wurde. Die Schulgeschichtsbücher von 1960/70 sind insofern deutlich progressiver, als sie den Holocaust und andere Kriegsverbrechen konkreter darstellen. Aber das deutsche Volk wird unverändert als Opfer des Krieges und Nazidiktatur dargestellt. Vor allem das Volk wußte angeblich nichts vom Holocaust und den Kriegsverbrechen. Die Schulgeschichtsbücher nach 1980 bis heute scheinen das alte Problem fast gelöst zu haben. Sie stellen den Prozeß des Holocausts vom Anfang an bis zur Massenvernichtung deutlich ausführlicher dar. Sie stellen auch dar, daß die 'Kriegsgeneration' schon von dem Kriegsverbrechen wußte, und fordern daß die nachfolgende Generation die Verantwortung für die Wahrheit und die richtige Erinnerung trägt. Daß die Deutschen die Geschichte der Nazidiktatur und des Holocausts heute als 'Schande' empfinden, und daß dies ein Bestandteil der deutschen 'Identität' geworden ist, ist feststellbar. Geschichtsdidaktisch sind in diesen Schulgeschichtsbüchern viele Quellen von den 'Erfahrungen' der Opfern und Tätern enthalten, so daß die Schüler selbst das Geschichtsbild konstruieren können. Die neueren geschichtsdidaktischen Darstellungen des Massenmordes und des Krieges sind auch für Konzeption koreanischer Geschichtslehrwerke sehr hilfreich.

독일 역사수업에서의 다원적 관점

이병련 한국독일사학회 2016 독일연구 Vol.- No.32

Multiperspectivity in German history education theory can be explained in three different dimensions. They are 1. multiperspectivity of the people of the past that can be observed in historical records and artifacts, 2. multiperspectivity of the researcher and the historian in relations to their observation of historical facts, i.e. arguments 3. multiperspectivity in the sense that each student of history forms his individual opinion on a particular historical fact, i.e. multiple opinions. German history education theory demands that history classes be undertaken in the same way as a professional historian would study his discipline, which means that the students must experience the understanding of history in a procedural manner. It is accepted that students must take into account the principle of multiperspectivity in order to achieve objectivity in historical thinking. The history education guidelines of German state governments regard the objective of history education as the formation of reflective historical consciousness. Reflective historical consciousness can be developed as students attain ‘historical competence.’ Historical competence can be divided into professional competence (Sachkompetenz), methodological competence and judgement competence. Judgement competence is again divided into situational judgement competence and value judgement competence. Historical value judgement competence is the highest competence that students of history must attain. The history education guidelines of the German state governments which have been published after the early 2000s are labelled ‘competence-oriented history education guidelines,’ and they stipulate the ‘competence’ that need to be attained by students during their history classes in each school year. The learning of multiperspectivity is emphasized in order to develop these competences which are vital in the formation of reflective historical consciousness. History classes that apply multiperspectivity have the objective of developing competence of adopting perspectives and empathy, situational judgement competence and value judgement competence. In order to facilitate the development of competence related to adopting perspectives and empathy, ‘production-oriented’ or ‘action-oriented’ history classes are regarded as being appropriate. This article has introduced the module ‘Columbus and Its Results’ of the 8th grade as a sample class. This module’s most important objective is to develop the individual student’s historical judgement competence. Only by developing his individual historical judgement competence can the student attain the necessary political acumen to actively promote the ideals of democracy and human rights. 독일의 역사교육 이론에서 다원적 관점은 세 가지의 서로 다른 차원을 의미한다. 그것은 1. 사료와 유물 속에 포함되어 있는 과거의 인간들의 다원적 관점, 2. 역사적 사실에 대한 후대의 관찰자인 연구자와 역사가의 다원적 관점, 즉 논쟁, 3. 학습자들이 하나의 역사적 사실에 대하여 각자의 의견을 형성하는 의미에서의 다원적 관점, 즉 복수의 의견들의 차원이다. 독일의 역사교육 이론은 역사수업이 원칙적으로 전문역사가의 작업방식과 유사한 방법으로 이루어져야만 한다고 하며, 이것은 학생들이 역사수업에서 역사적 인식을 하나의 ‘과정’으로서 경험하여야만 한다는 것을 의미한다. 학습자들은 다원적 관점의 원칙을 고려함으로써만이 역사적 사고에서 객관성에 도달할 수 있다고 본다. 주정부들의 교수계획은 역사교육의 목표가 반성적reflected 역사의식의 형성에 있다고 본다. 반성적 역사의식은 학생들이 ‘역사적 능력 historical competence’을 습득하면서 계발될 수 있다고 본다. 역사적 능력은 ‘사실능력 Sachkompetenz’, ‘방법능력’, ‘판단능력’으로 구분된다. 판단능력은 다시 ‘상황판단 능력’과 ‘가치판단 능력’으로 구분된다. 역사적 가치판단 능력은 학생들이 습득해야만 할 최고의 능력이다. 2000년대 초반 이후에 출간된 독일 주정부들의 교수계획은 ‘능력지향적 교수계획 competence oriented’이라고 명명되고 있는데, 그것은 역사수업에서 학생들이 특정한 학년마다 성취하여야 할 ‘능력’을 규정하고 있다. 다원적 관점의 학습은 반성적 역사의식을 위해서는 필수적인 이러한 능력의 계발을 위해서 강조되고 있다. 다원적 관점의 역사수업은 ‘관점의 수용 Perspektivenyebernahme Empathy’ 능력과 상황판단능력, 가치판단 능력의 계발에 그 목표가 놓여진다. ‘생산지향적인’ 또는 ‘행동지향적인’ 역사수업이 관점 수용능력을 개발을 위해서는 적합한 수업방식이라고 본다. 여기에서는 8학년에 해당되는 ‘콜럼버스와 그 결과’라는 수업단위를 하나의 수업사례로 소개하였다. 이 수업단위에서의 최고의 목표는 학생들 개인 각자의 역사적 판단능력의 계발이다. 학생들은 스스로의 역사적 판단능력을 발전시킴으로써 현재 사회에서의 민주주의와 인권의 가치를 위해 적극적으로 행동할 수 있는 정치적 교양을 갖출 수 있다.

독일 역사수업에서의 다원적 관점

이병련 한국독일사학회 2016 한국독일사학회 학술발표대회 논문집 Vol.2016 No.4

독일 역사교과서에 나타난 제2차 세계대전 : Geschichtsbuch 를 중심으로 --

이병련 전남사학회 2001 역사학연구 Vol.17 No.-

This paper examines and analyses the historical image and historical consciousness about the World War Two suggested by a German history textbook titled "History Books, Men and Their History in Descriptions and Records (Geschichtsbuch, die Menschen und ihre Geschite in Darstellungen und Documenten, Comelsen Verlag 1986ff.) ". First, I examined the difference in history education in Germany and Korea. Major differences came from the federation government structure of Germany. Sovereignty of education is at the hand of 16 Bundes government, and sixteen lecture plans lead the development of diverse perspectives and theories of history education. Above all, since the German politics are divided by ideological line of conservatism and progressivism, different perspectives and theories influenced by these political forces also develop. In Germany, the history textbooks also have been developed diversely in various forms and kinds. Major formats of the textbooks are "textual learning and teaching textbook," "exercise textbook," and "combining (combination) textbook" which combines the learning textbook and exercise textbook. "Geschichtsbuch," which I examined in the paper is a combining textbook, is composed of four volumes. Volume four deals with seventy years from 1917, contemporary history. The Geschichtsbuch is written and edited by historians and history educators who are inclined to social history trends. Therefore, the origins and background of the World War Two are rather explained in the context of criticism on conservative and reactionary social classes in German society, than in the context of international relations. In terms of principles of history education, the Geschichtsbuch was based on the principle of multi-perspectivity and the principle of discovering or exploring study. The principle of multi-perspectivity is an approach to observe history from perspectives of incident, structure, and experience. The Geschichtsbuch is composed of "Advanced organizer," "Narrative," and "Practice." In the Narrative part, incidents and structures of a historical period is suggested with a problem-oriented and argument-oriented presentation which leads students to the theme. The Practice part explores how the individuals of a period personally experienced the history, i.e., the incidents and the structure. By doing so, students are able to cultivate a historical judgement by oneself individually. The strength of this textbook is found in its efforts to stimulate students incessantly toward a historical thinking and a historical judgement and to educate for peace.

뤼젠(Rüsen)의 역사의식 학습의 네 가지 형태

이병련 한국역사교육학회 2019 역사교육연구 Vol.- No.34

This essay introduces the theory of Rüsen's learning of the historical consciousness to the Korean reader. Rüsen is the leading theorist both in historical science and in history didactics in Germany and it would not be possible to correctly understand the theory and practice of German history didactics without having informed his theory. Four types of Rüsen's historical consciousness are traditional, exemplary, critical and genetic. The learning of history in the sense of the traditional meaning formation means the learning of the tradition as pregiven time orientation. The exemplary formation of meaning formation means the learning of the ‘rule competence’ and the historical judgment. The critical means learning from the interpretation of the time experience that deconstructs the pre-given time orientation and life order. The genetic means the learning of the competences, which considerate and synthesize the change in the past and the expectation of the future, and change the own patterns of the time orientation into the new states. Genetic education is the highest and most complex level of history learning and should actually be the goal of history teaching at school. And this goal seems to be difficult to achieve in Germany. Nevertheless, this goal can not be waived if the goal of history learning at school should be to ensure that students are ‘historically competent’ to act ‘here and now’ with time orientation and future expectation. 이 논문은 뤼젠의 역사의식 학습의 네 가지 형태를 한국의 독자들에게 소개한 것이다. 뤼젠은 독일의 주도적인 전문역사학 이론가이자 역사교육 이론가이고, 그의 이론을 이해하지 않고서는 독일 역사교육의 이론과 실제를 제대로 이해할 수 없다고 생각된다. 그의 네 가지 역사의식 학습의 형태는 전통적, 예증적, 비판적 그리고 발생적 역사의식이다. 전통적 형태에서의 역사학습은 기존의 시간방향 으로서의 전통을 습득하는 것이다. 예증적 형태에서는 ‘법칙능력’과 역사적 판단능력을 배운다. 비판적 형태에서는 기존의 시간방향과 삶의 질서를 무력화시키는 시간경험의 해석을 습득한다. 발생적인 형태에서는 과거의 변화와 미래의 기대를 고려하고 종합하여, 새로워진 환경에 자신의 시간방향의 모형 자체를 변화시킬 수 있는 능력을 배운다. 발생적인 형태가 역사학습에서 가장 복잡하고 높은 단계이고, 근본적으로 학교에서의 역사교육의 목표가 되어야 한다. 그런데 독일에서도 이 단계에 도달하는 것은 상당히 어려워 보인다. 그러나 역사교육의 목표가 학생 개개인이 ‘지금 여기에서’ 결정하고 행동하고, 그리고 미래를 기대할 수 있게 하는 ‘역사적 능력’을 가질 수 있게 하는 데에 있다면, 그것은 포기될 수는 없다고 본다.

역사교육과 인권: 아메리카혁명에서의 인권

이병련 역사학연구회 2008 사총 Vol.66 No.-

The purpose of this paper is to emphasize the human rights, universal rights of men, in the history education. In the history education of South Korea, it seems that human rights issues are little considered, and therefore it should be improved. To help teachers and students learning history, this paper introduces how human rights issues are considered in textbooks and teaching materials of history in the United States and Germany. The Virginia Bill of Rights and the United States Declaration of Independence which were declared during the American Revolution enlightened the beginning of a new era in the world history. Its unique characteristic was that the origin and validity of Human Rights are not deduced from the government, but from natural rights, the inherent and unalienable rights of men. At the same time, it became the basis of government and public order. Americans, however, did not pursued the final goal of essential ideas of these declarations. Few people desired to expand the principle of human rights to women, black slaves, and Native Americans. This denial of women as political subject, thereby refusing the possibility that women can benefit from the Declaration of Human Rights, was argued in various discussions. Especially, in the Southern colonies which was based on the slavery-based plantation economy, the revolution and declarations did not bring freedom to slaves but the heyday of slavery after the revolution. The history of expansion to the West of North America coincides with the deprivation of rights, deportation, and extermination of Native Americans. And the racial prejudice that Native Americans are primitive men, barbarians is still remains in the American history textbooks.

독일통일 이후 신연방주의 역사교육

이병련 역사비평사 2000 역사비평 Vol.- No.50

[역사마당] 독일통일과 역사교육

이병련 내일을 여는 역사 2000 내일을 여는 역사 Vol.3 No.-