조선전기 도회관제의 운용과 특징

소순규(So Sun-Gyu) 고려사학회 2015 한국사학보 Vol.- No.59

본 연구는 조선 초기 도입된 도회관제의 도입 배경과 실제 운용 양상을 살펴본 것이다. 고려로부터 계승된 계수관제는 조선초 지방의 군사, 행정, 경제 업무 수행에서 중요하게 기능하였다. 계수관제란 道 안에서 몇몇 개의 중심적 고을을 계수관으로 설정하고, 이들 고을이 주변의 여러 고을을 행정적으로 통솔하여 지방 업무를 해결하는 제도였다. 그런데 이 계수관제는 15세기 중후반경부터 점차 도회관제로 대체되기 시작하였다. 도회관제는 계수관과 비슷한 운영원리를 가지는 것이었지만 몇 가지 차이점을 가지고 있었다. 첫째로 계수관은 인구나 물자 등이 풍부하고 또 역사적으로 정치적 중심지로 기능해 왔던 곳에 고정적으로 설치되는 반면, 도회관은 국가의 필요에 따라 임의적인 도회관 설정이 가능하였다. 둘째로 계수관과 소속 군현이 고정된 계수관제에 비하여 도회관제에서는 업무 사안에 따라 도회관과 도회관에 소속되는 군현의 수가 조정되었다. 즉 업무 단위의 편성이 보다 유동적이고 자유로웠다. 마지막으로 도회관제에서는 업무의 성격에 따라 도회관이 설정됨으로서 전문성을 높이는 한편, 업무의 집중도 분산시킬 수 있는 장점이 있었다. 이러한 제도적 장점으로 인하여 도회관제는 기존 계수관제보다 더 넓고 많은 영역에서 활용되었다. 지방행정 영역에서는 기존 계수관제를 계승하는 면이 컸으나, 여타영역에서는 계수관제와는 다른 형태로 운영되는 경우가 많았다. 특히 기존 계수관제에서는 크게 활용되지 않았던 물자의 생산과 조달 영역에서 도회관제를 도입 운영하는 경우가 늘어났다. 이러한 도회제가 도입된 원인은 다양화 되는 지방업무의 효율성을 제고하기 위한 고민의 결과였던 것으로 보인다. 아울러 국가가 임의로 중심지를 지정해도 업무 처리에 지장이 없을 만큼 개별 군현의 행정력이 신장되었다는 점도 지적할 수 있을 것이다. 마지막으로 당시 군사적, 사회경제적 배경에서 특정 물자 생산을 국가의 관리감독 하에 진행해야 했던 고충 역시 도회관제 도입을 촉발한 원인 중 하나였다.

사회경제사로 윤색된 뉴라이트 ‘유교망국론’ - 이영훈, 『세종은 과연 성군인가』의 노비제론 비판

소순규(So, Soonkyu) 역사비평사 2021 역사비평 Vol.- No.136

This thesis aimed to criticize the contents of slavery in the Joseon Dynasty, mentioned in Lee Yeong-Hoon’s book 『Is Sejong Truly a Great King?』 published in 2018. As one of the reasons why Sejong cannot be a ‘great king’, Lee Yeong-Hoon’s book above points out that he largely contributed to the development of slavery system. Also, in Korean history, the slavery system was the most developed in the Joseon Dynasty, and during the 15th~17th century, the number of slaves was almost 40% of whole population. Moreover, the slaves in the Joseon Dynasty were described as the ‘socially-dead’ state after losing the dignity of man. And the ruling class defended the social order based on the Confucian justification. The characteristics of slavery system in the Joseon Dynasty mentioned in this book, are originally based on his research performance. Even though his researches on the slavery system in the Joseon Dynasty include very important contents in the research history, they have not been seriously reviewed or criticized in the academia. Moreover, this book includes many things that deny his academic argument or sensationally highlight the contents. Thus, this thesis first reviewed the critical points and significance in the research history by reviewing his academic argument. Next, this thesis also reviewed the contents of slavery system mentioned in 『Is Sejong Truly a Great King?』. Lastly, this thesis mentioned the ultimate contents that Lee Yeong-Hoon’s description of slavery system aimed for, shown in the book above. Eventually, he just added the socioeconomic interpretation to the old frame of the theory of national ruin by Confucianism through the slavery system.

16세기 공납제(貢納制) 운영 변화의 구조적 원인과 배경

蘇淳圭 ( So Soon-kyu ) 성균관대학교 대동문화연구원 2022 大東文化硏究 Vol.117 No.-

16세기 공납제는 민호의 부담을 가중시키고, 국가시스템의 존속을 위협하는 대표적인 ‘폐단’으로 언급되었다. 때문에 많은 연구가 16세기 공납제를 다루었으며, 공납제 운영의 다양한 양상들이 규명되었다. 그러나 기존연구에서 다루고 있는 16세기 공납제 운영의 변화 모습이 왜, 어떻게 발생하였는지에 대해서는 몇 가지 점에서 재검토의 여지가 있다. 우선 기존연구에서는 16세기 공납제 운영의 모습을 15세기 제도의 연장에서 찾지 않고, 뒷 시기인 17세기와의 상호관련성 하에서 고찰하였다. 그리고 이러한 공납제 운영 양상을 17세기 후반의 대동법 성립의 하나의 배경으로서 서술하였다. 이러한 시각은 결국 16세기 공납제 운영의 모습이 왜 그렇게 변화하였는지를 계기적으로 이해하는데 큰 어려움으로 작용하였다. 본고는 이러한 점에 착안하여 15세기 이루어진 재정구조의 정착과 정비의 결과로서 16세기 공납제 운영의 변화상을 구명해 보고자 하였다. 또 기존연구에서는 16세기 이후 재정적 위기, 연산군에 의한 폐정 등이 공납제 운영상의 모순을 증가시켰다고 언급하였다. 그러나 15세기 제도정비의 결과와 16세기 상황을 함께 염두에 둘 때, ‘재정적 위기’란 것이 무엇인지 명확하지 않으며 그것이 실재하는지도 의문이다. 아울러 연산군에 의한 폐정이 존재한 것은 사실이지만, 4~5년에 불과한 연산군대 정치적 유산이 한 세기에 걸쳐 영향을 미친다고 볼 수는 없다. 본고는 기존 연구에서 이미 충실히 밝혀진 내용을 바탕으로, 16세기 공납제 운영 변화의 원인과 배경을 보다 구조적으로 파악해 보고자 하였다. 논의의 층위를 중앙, 지방, 왕실로 구분하여 이들의 상호관계 속에서 공납제 운영이 변화하는 모습을 추적해 보도록 하겠다. Tributary system was regarded as a representative ‘malady’ that increased the burden of individual households and threatened the survival of the national system in the 16th century. Therefore, many studies dealt with the tribute system of the 16th century, and as a result, various aspects of the tribute system operation were identified. However, there is room for reexamination in some respects as to why and how the tribute system operation was changed in the 16th century, which was investigated in previous studies. First of all, previous studies examined the operation of the tribute system in the 16th century by taking into account the correlation with the later 17th century, rather than considering it as an extension of the 15th century system. In addition, they described the aspect of the tribute system operation as a background to the establishment of Daedongbeop(大同法) in the late 17th century. This view eventually acted as a great difficulty in understanding why the operation of the tribute system was changed in the 16th century. Accordingly, this study aimed to investigate the changes of the tribute system in the 16th century as a result of the settlement and reformation of the financial structure established in the 15th century. Besides, according to previous studies, the financial crisis after the 16th century and misgovernment by King Yeonsan(燕山君) increased the contradiction in the operation of the tribute system. However, it is not clear what the financial crisis was and it is questionable whether it existed, in view of the results of institutional reform in the 15th century and the situation in the 16th century. Although it is true that there was misgovernment by King Yeonsan, it cannot be said that the political legacy in the reign of King Yeonsan, which was only 4~5 years old, had an impact over a century. This study aimed to more structurally understand the causes and background to the changes of tribute system operation in the 16th century, based on the findings faithfully revealed in previous studies. This study will trace the changes in the operation of the tribute system in their relationship by dividing the discussion into central, regional, and royal court.

조선 세조대 공물 대납 공인(公認)의 정책적 맥락

소순규 ( So Soon-kyu ) 호남사학회(구 전남사학회) 2018 역사학연구 Vol.72 No.-

본 연구는 세종대에서 시작된 공물대납의 부분적 허용이 세조대 전면적인 공인에 이르기까지의 과정을 살펴보고, 그 과정에서 공물 대납 정책이 어떠한 맥락 안에서 이루어진 것인지를 고찰하였다. 기존 연구에서는 대납을 주로 불교계와의 관련성 하에서 다루어왔다. 그러나 필자의 검토에 따르면 공물 대납은 공납제 본연의 모순 해결이란 측면과 불교 승려에 대한 후원이란 두 가지 맥락에서 이루어졌다. 당시 대납에 부정적이었던 신료들은, 승려들이 대납에 개입되어 있는 상황을 빌미로 대납 전체를 비정상적인 것 또는 불교에 대한 후원으로 간주하여 비판하였다. 그러나 세종과 문종 그리고 세조는 이러한 비판에 대응할 때 본래 대납을 허용한 취지, 대납이 필요한 상황을 충분히 인지하고 있었다. 세종대 최초 도입된 공물 대납은 본래 공납제가 가진 자체적 모순을 해결하기 위한 것이다. 그러나 세종 말년에 이르러 세종이 친불성향으로 돌아서고, 이후 불교계에 대납권을 광범위하게 인정해주면서 공물 대납이 불교 문제와 깊은 연관을 맺게 되었다. 세종 사후 문종대에 이르러 관료들은 대납의 폐지를 강하게 주장하였지만, 문종은 대납 정책의 정책적 의도를 파악하고 있었기에 폐지에 대해 신중한 입장을 표명하였다. 세조 역시 집권 초반 문종과 마찬가지였으나, 집권 중반기에 이르러 오히려 대납을 전면적으로 공인하면서 이전과는 확연히 다른 대납정책을 시행하였다. 세조의 대납 전면 공인에는 대납가 산정, 대납 시행 절차의 정비 등 여러 가지 부수적인 정책들이 필요하였다. 아울러 세조 집권 후반기에 이루어진 공안의 개정에도 대납정책이 영향을 미치게 되어, 불산공물의 존재를 인정한 상태에서 각 군현의 공물을 분정하기에 이르렀다. 그러나 세조대 대납의 전면 공인에서도 여전히 불교계 인사들의 대납 개입은 막을 수 없었고, 이와 더불어 공물 납입이 지체되는 등의 문제가 발생하기에 이르렀다. 이리하여 세조의 대납 전면 공인 정책은 다음 국왕인 예종의 즉위와 함께 백지화되기에 이르렀다. This research aimed at investigating the process that partial permission for proxy payment of tribute, which began from King Sejong, became the full-scale permission during King Sejo, and determining the context of the policy of proxy payment of proxy in the process. Previous researches have treated proxy payment based on the correlation with Buddhism. However, according to the researcher’s investigation, proxy payment of tribute was conducted in two contexts, the aspect of settlement of the natural contradiction of tribute system and the aspect of support for Buddhist monks. The officers, who were negative about tribute during that time, criticized the whole tribute as an abnormal system or support for Buddhism, based on the situation where Buddhist monks intervened in proxy payment. Nevertheless, Sejong, Munjong, and Sejo fully perceived the purpose of permitting proxy payment and the situation which required proxy payment, when they responded to such criticism. Tribute proxy payment, firstly applied during Sejong, originally intended to settle the contradiction of tribute system itself. However, as Sejong became pro-Buddhism during his latter years, accordingly, as proxy payment right in Buddhism was extensively permitted, tribute proxy payment became deeply associated with the matter of Buddhism. The government officials strongly insisted on abolition of proxy payment during Munjong, after Sejong’s death, however since Munjong comprehended the political intention of proxy payment, he expressed a careful position on the abolition of it. Sejo was also in the same position as Munjong during his initial years, however he fully adopted proxy payment in his middle stages, all the more, implementing definitely different proxy payment policy. Sejo’s full-scale permission for proxy payment required several subordinate policies, such as calculation of proxy payment value, organization of proxy payment procedure, etc. Also, proxy payment policy also influenced revision of tribute system during the latter stages of Sejo’s reign, tribute of each Gun Hyeon was arranged(分定) as the existence of Buddhistic tribute. Nevertheless Sejo’s full-scale permission for proxy payment, Buddhist persons’ intervention in proxy payment was not prevented, and problems such as delay of tribute payment occurred. Accordingly, Sejo’s full-scale permission for proxy payment was eliminated along with enthronement of Yejong after Sejo.

조선전기 요역(徭役)의 종목 구분과 차정(差定) 방식에 대한 검토

소순규 ( So Soon Kyu ) 고려대학교 역사연구소(구 역사학연구회) 2019 사총 Vol.96 No.-

본 연구는 조선초기 요역의 종목 구분과 요역 차정 방식에 대한 기존의 연구 성과를 검토하고, 기존 연구에서 발생하는 문제점을 새로운 입론으로 정리하였다. 조선초기 요역에 대해서는 有井智德의 선행 연구를 통해 본격적인 연구가 진행되었다. 그는 요역을 전결을 근거로 부과하는 소경요역과 인정수를 고려하여 부과하는 잡역으로 구분하였으며, 요역의 차정 방식은 조선초 계정법에서 토지와 인구를 모두 고려하는 절충법으로, 다시 절충법에서 전결만을 고려하는 계전법으로 이행해 간다고 보았다. 이후 한국인연구자들의 후속 연구가 이루어졌는데, 차정 방식의 변화 추이는 대체적으로 인정된 반면, 요역의 종목 구분은 받아들여지지 않았다. 필자는 이와 다르게 有井智德의 연구에서 요역의 종목 구분에 대해서는 타당성을 인정해야 한다고 보았으며, 오히려 요역의 차정 방식에는 재검토의 여지가 있다고 보았다. 유정지덕이 잡역이라고 구분한 범주는 호역이란 용어로 대체 가능하며, 그럴 경우 그의 연구에 대한 비판의 논거를 소거할 수 있게 된다. 아울러 요역이 소경요역과 호역으로 이원적으로 이루어질 경우 차정 방식 역시 이원적이어야 하며, 따라서 요역 차정에서도 계전법과 절충법이 공존하고 있다고 보았다. 요역 차정 방식에서 주요하게 검토할 문제가 호등제인데, 호등제 역시 사실상 이원적으로 운영되었으며, 이후 성종대 도입된 역민식 역시 호등제 규정과의 깊은 관련성에서 만들어진 법제였다. In this study, previous studies of the categorization and method of division of labor services owned to the nation (this type of labor services was termed ‘Yoyuk’) in the early Chosun Dynasty were reviewed and analyzed, and based on the findings, this study has made an argument. As for labor services owned to the nation in the early Chosun Dynasty, this study primarily focused on the review of a pervious study by Ari Tomonori(有井智德). In his study, Sogyungyoyuk (所耕徭役), Labor services owned to the nation were categorized into Sogyungyoyuk assigned arbitrarily and miscellaneous services (this type of labor services was termed ‘Japyuk’(雜役)), assigned in consideration of the no. of People(人丁), and the method of division of labor services owned to the nation was eclectic at first, considering both no. of population and land areas and then, changed to a relay method in which only arbitration decisions were considered. His study was followed by Korean researchers, and although his claim on such changes in the method of division of labor services owned to the nation was generally accepted, not the categorization. On the other hand, the author has found his claim for the categorization reasonable, but not the changes in the method of division. The miscellaneous labor services, categorized by Ari Tomonori(有井智德), could be expressed using a term ‘Hoyuk (戶役)’ and in this case, it would be possible to remove the ground for an argument for his research. In addition, if labor services owned to the nation were made in the dualistic fashion: Sogyungyoyuk and Hoyuk, the division of labor services owned to the nation should have been made in the dualistic fashion as well. Therefore, it would be reasonable to believe that the division of labor services was made through two methods: an eclectic method and a relay method. One of critical topics in the research of division of labor services owned to the nation is Hodeungjae(戶等制) and in fact, it was also operated in the dualistic manner and Yeokminsik(役民式)’ introduced in the reign of King Sung-Jong was also closely related with Hodeungjae(戶等制).

여말선초 전제개혁의 역사적 성격에 대한 재검토 - ‘사전개혁’ 에 대한 비판적 관점에서 -

소순규(So, Soon-Kyu) 한국사연구회 2020 한국사연구 Vol.- No.190

조선전기 座目의 운영과 당상관 인사 관행

소순규 ( So Soon-kyu ) 조선시대사학회 2020 朝鮮時代史學報 Vol.94 No.0

Jwamok (座目 or 坐目) during the Joseon Dynasty was used as a list of or a roll book people who will be participated in events such as the official events of the state, meetings in government offices, and town meetings. The entry order of Jwamok meant the grade of the members, and the order was set according to specific criteria such as official position, status, and age. However, it seems that Jwamok was used in this general meaning since the late Joseon Dynasty, and it was used as a different example during the early Joseon. Jwamok in the Joseon Dynasty was a list recorded rank of Dangsanggwan(堂上官) in the royal court. Jwamok seems to have been maintained right after the enthronement of King Sejong, and gradually the subject of entry has been settled the rank of Dangsanggwan and over in the process of expanding the standard of Dangsanggwan into Jeong-Ilpum. Jwa-mok was used as a very important reference in the personnel administration for the affiliates of Dangsanggwan, which is not applied to Sunjabop, and sometimes, it conflicted with the bureaucracy system or King’s personnel right. In this study, it intends to examine the operation method of Jwamok, and the one side of HR practice of the Dangsanggwan in the early Joseon Dynasty through this.

조선 초기 경제사 연구와 그 역사상에 대한 비판적 검토

소순규(So Soon-kyu) 역사비평사 2023 역사비평 Vol.- No.145

朝鮮 成宗代 貢案改定의 배경과 특징

蘇淳圭 ( So Soonkyu ) 조선시대사학회 2018 朝鮮時代史學報 Vol.87 No.0

In the study on the finance of Joseon Dynasty, Gong-an(貢案) take a very important part. Gong-an(貢案), the national asset book, was the most important material for national finance operation along with the expense regulation, Hweng-gan(橫看). Such point was also perceived in the existing researches, however such research on the point has not been regularized so far. Particularly, the contents such as the revision process of Gong-an, change of Gong-an system, etc. have not been examined at all. The researcher determined 5 sessions of composition of Gong-an during the early Joseon Dynasty, based on this, investigated the characteristics of each Gong-an. This research intended to determine the characteristics of Seongjong Gong-an, here, Songjong Gong-an was the revision of King Sejo’s Eulyu Gong-an in a few years after it had been drawn up. This way, this research intended to investigate the background of composition of new Gong-an in such a short period, the process of revision of Gong-an, and the characteristics of Gong-an that was drawn up as the result. According to a total ban on proxy payment(代納) of tribute, a necessity of a new Gong-an appeared. King Seongjong hurried several measures to receive tribute in kind system as soon as he ascended the throne, on the other hand, he started revision of Gong-an. This way, Gong-an revision was finalized until Seongjong’s reign 4^th year, and new Gong-an was presumed to be commonly used since the 5^th year. Since Songjong Gong-an aimed at transfer to payment in kind system, tribute was divided considering the production area of the products(物種), differently from the past. Also, to minimize the harm along with ban on proxy payment, Gong-aek(貢額), decreased to half compared to King Sejo’s Eulyu Gong-an, was regulated. And it seemed that the proxy payment value, established during King Sejo’s reign of the past, was referred to, in the process of division of tribute. However, connection of Gong-an and Hweng-gan, change of Gong-an system, etc. were succeeded with King Sejo’s Eulyu Gong-an as it was. Gong-an revised during King Seongjong completed the institutional frame of receipt of tribute, based on payment in kind along with _Gyeonggukdaejeon_. Nevertheless, reduction of Gong-aek to minimize public harm was conducted unreasonably, accordingly, the problem of lack of financial source was constantly raised during King Seongjong’s reign. In his latter years, King Seongjong agreed to the necessity of revision of Gong-an and directed a new revision work, however this task was conducted during King Younsangun’s reign after Seongjong.

여말선초 제주도 수취체제 정비과정과 특징

소순규 ( So Soon-kyu ) 한국중세사학회 2023 한국중세사연구 Vol.- No.73

This study aimed to examine the reorganization and characteristics of collection system in Jeju Island in the late Goryeo and the early Joseon Dynasty. Jeju Island was incorporated into the provinces of Goryeo from the Goryeo Dynasty, but it was difficult to establish a stable collection system during the Goryeo period due to the complicated politics thereafter, and the full-scale reorganizatuion of Jeju’s collection system began in earnest after the founding of the Joseon Dynasty. The agricultural environment in Jeju Island was poor due to the soil quality unsuitable for farming and the narrow cultivation area. Therefore, its family composition and residence type were also different from those on lands. In addition, transportation conditions were very poor due to the nature of an island. Jeju’s collection system was created based on these characteristics. Land tax or yeok was not paid to Seoul, but instead the burden was not large. On the contrary, tributes and presents paid to the central government accounted for most of the burden of taxation. The biggest burden of presents was horses, and seafood such as abalone and tangerines were also the major items. Besides, the maintenance and operation of these tax items reflected Jeju’s unique characteristics different from lands, including the organization of present units and the long-term continuation of governmental tribute production system.