조선전기 座目의 운영과 당상관 인사 관행

소순규 ( So Soon-kyu ) 조선시대사학회 2020 朝鮮時代史學報 Vol.94 No.0

Jwamok (座目 or 坐目) during the Joseon Dynasty was used as a list of or a roll book people who will be participated in events such as the official events of the state, meetings in government offices, and town meetings. The entry order of Jwamok meant the grade of the members, and the order was set according to specific criteria such as official position, status, and age. However, it seems that Jwamok was used in this general meaning since the late Joseon Dynasty, and it was used as a different example during the early Joseon. Jwamok in the Joseon Dynasty was a list recorded rank of Dangsanggwan(堂上官) in the royal court. Jwamok seems to have been maintained right after the enthronement of King Sejong, and gradually the subject of entry has been settled the rank of Dangsanggwan and over in the process of expanding the standard of Dangsanggwan into Jeong-Ilpum. Jwa-mok was used as a very important reference in the personnel administration for the affiliates of Dangsanggwan, which is not applied to Sunjabop, and sometimes, it conflicted with the bureaucracy system or King’s personnel right. In this study, it intends to examine the operation method of Jwamok, and the one side of HR practice of the Dangsanggwan in the early Joseon Dynasty through this.

여말선초 제주도 수취체제 정비과정과 특징

소순규 ( So Soon-kyu ) 한국중세사학회 2023 한국중세사연구 Vol.- No.73

This study aimed to examine the reorganization and characteristics of collection system in Jeju Island in the late Goryeo and the early Joseon Dynasty. Jeju Island was incorporated into the provinces of Goryeo from the Goryeo Dynasty, but it was difficult to establish a stable collection system during the Goryeo period due to the complicated politics thereafter, and the full-scale reorganizatuion of Jeju’s collection system began in earnest after the founding of the Joseon Dynasty. The agricultural environment in Jeju Island was poor due to the soil quality unsuitable for farming and the narrow cultivation area. Therefore, its family composition and residence type were also different from those on lands. In addition, transportation conditions were very poor due to the nature of an island. Jeju’s collection system was created based on these characteristics. Land tax or yeok was not paid to Seoul, but instead the burden was not large. On the contrary, tributes and presents paid to the central government accounted for most of the burden of taxation. The biggest burden of presents was horses, and seafood such as abalone and tangerines were also the major items. Besides, the maintenance and operation of these tax items reflected Jeju’s unique characteristics different from lands, including the organization of present units and the long-term continuation of governmental tribute production system.

조선 태종대 저화 발행 배경에 대한 재검토 - ‘화폐정책’이 아닌 ‘재정정책’의 맥락에서

소순규(So, Soon-kyu) 호서사학회 2019 역사와 담론 Vol.0 No.92

조선 전기 발행된 楮貨는 그간 많은 연구자의 주목을 받은 주제였다. 조선 태종대 국가의 주도로 저화란 화폐가 발행되었으나, 사회경제적 여건의 미숙으로 민간에 정착하지 못하고 실패에 이르렀다는 것이 그동안의 견해였다. 저화의 시도 및 실패는 조선 전기 상품 화폐경제 발전의 정도를 보여주는 것으로 평가되었으며, 이후 조선 후기에 이르러 상품 화폐 경제의 발전이 심화됨에 따라 동전, 즉, 화폐사용이 보다 광범위하게 이루어지게 되는 역사적 귀결의 前史로 자리매김하게 되었다. 그러나 당대 사료에서 나타난 저화는 화폐 도입이란 목적보다는 재정 문제 해결을 위한 재정정책으로서의 성격을 지니고 있었다. 두 차례 도입된 저화는 모두 국가의 미곡 부족 문제를 해결하기 위한 것이었다. 특히 태종 10년대부터 본격화된 2차 저화 발행의 경우, 상당한 재정적 성과를 낳기도 하였다. 이 과정에서 국가는 저화가 화폐로서 민간에 활발히 유통되는 것을 경계하는 모습을 보이기도 하였다. 요컨대 당시의 저화 발행은 화폐 정책으로서가 아니라 재정 정책으로 접근해야만 정책의 의도와 과정, 결과를 당대의 입장에서 읽어낼 수 있다. 더하여 당시 발행된 저화의 액면가 역시 두 차례 저화 발행의 목적에 따라 달리 설정되었다. 녹봉 때 나누어주는 紬布를 대체하기 위한 저화는 2종의 가치로 발행되었고, 가치 기준은 포(布)였다. 반면 미곡과 저화의 직접 교역을 통해 국가의 미곡 확보를 꾀했던 2차 발행당시에는 저화 1장의 가치를 미 1斗로 고정하여 저화와 쌀의 교환을 용이하도록 하였다. 본고는 이러한 내용을 토대로 조선전기 저화 발행의 배경을 다시 검토하고, 제도 운영의 과정과 결과까지 아울러 재검토해 보고자 한다. The Jeohwa (paper-note) issued in the early Joseon Dynasty have been an interesting subject to the researchers. It has been a opinion that the paper-note called ‘Jeohwa’ was issued led by King Taejong of Joseon Dynasty but it had failed to settle down among people due to inexperienced socioeconomic conditions. Attempts and failures of Jeohwa were evaluated as showing the degree of development of commodity-money Economy in the early Joseon Dynasty. As reached the late Joseon Dynasty later, the development of the commodity-money economy deepened, it became a historical consequence of the wider use of coins, that is currency. However, Jeohwa from the historical records of the days had a purpose as monetary policy rather than the purpose of introducing money. The two-time introduction of Jeohwa was both aimed at resolving the country"s shortage of rice. In particular, the second Jeohwa issue, which began in earnest from the 10th year of King Taejong, produced considerable financial results. In the process, the country was also wary of the active circulation of Jeohwa in the private sector as currency. In short, the issue of Jeohwa at the time should be approached as a financial policy, not as a monetary policy, so that it can be read its intention, process and outcome of the policy in the perspective of the time. In addition, the face value of Jeohwa issued at that time was also set twice differently for the purpose of issuing it. To replace the silk distributed on the stipend day, Jeohwa was issued with two kinds of values, and the value unit was ‘Po(布)’. On the other hand, at the time of the second issue, when it was intended to secure the rice of the country through direct trade between rice and Jeohwa, the value of one Jeohwa was fixed at 1 ‘du(斗)’ to be easy to exchange with rice. Based on these fundings, this article is to reexamine the background of the issue of Jeohwa (paper-note) and review the process and results of the system operation.

朝鮮 成宗代 貢案改定의 배경과 특징

蘇淳圭 ( So Soonkyu ) 조선시대사학회 2018 朝鮮時代史學報 Vol.87 No.0

In the study on the finance of Joseon Dynasty, Gong-an(貢案) take a very important part. Gong-an(貢案), the national asset book, was the most important material for national finance operation along with the expense regulation, Hweng-gan(橫看). Such point was also perceived in the existing researches, however such research on the point has not been regularized so far. Particularly, the contents such as the revision process of Gong-an, change of Gong-an system, etc. have not been examined at all. The researcher determined 5 sessions of composition of Gong-an during the early Joseon Dynasty, based on this, investigated the characteristics of each Gong-an. This research intended to determine the characteristics of Seongjong Gong-an, here, Songjong Gong-an was the revision of King Sejo’s Eulyu Gong-an in a few years after it had been drawn up. This way, this research intended to investigate the background of composition of new Gong-an in such a short period, the process of revision of Gong-an, and the characteristics of Gong-an that was drawn up as the result. According to a total ban on proxy payment(代納) of tribute, a necessity of a new Gong-an appeared. King Seongjong hurried several measures to receive tribute in kind system as soon as he ascended the throne, on the other hand, he started revision of Gong-an. This way, Gong-an revision was finalized until Seongjong’s reign 4^th year, and new Gong-an was presumed to be commonly used since the 5^th year. Since Songjong Gong-an aimed at transfer to payment in kind system, tribute was divided considering the production area of the products(物種), differently from the past. Also, to minimize the harm along with ban on proxy payment, Gong-aek(貢額), decreased to half compared to King Sejo’s Eulyu Gong-an, was regulated. And it seemed that the proxy payment value, established during King Sejo’s reign of the past, was referred to, in the process of division of tribute. However, connection of Gong-an and Hweng-gan, change of Gong-an system, etc. were succeeded with King Sejo’s Eulyu Gong-an as it was. Gong-an revised during King Seongjong completed the institutional frame of receipt of tribute, based on payment in kind along with _Gyeonggukdaejeon_. Nevertheless, reduction of Gong-aek to minimize public harm was conducted unreasonably, accordingly, the problem of lack of financial source was constantly raised during King Seongjong’s reign. In his latter years, King Seongjong agreed to the necessity of revision of Gong-an and directed a new revision work, however this task was conducted during King Younsangun’s reign after Seongjong.

조선 태종대 미곡 확보 정책과 호급둔전제(戶給屯田制)의 시행

소순규 ( So Soonkyu ) 고려대학교 역사연구소 2021 사총 Vol.104 No.-

King Taejong who was on the throne in about ten years after the Joseon Dynasty was founded, enforced the strong policy to secure the rice during the seizure of power. In this process, many measures that were enforced in the end of the Goryeo Dynasty were carried out again, and the Hogeupdunjeonje this thesis aims to pay attention to was one of those systems. Originally, the Dunjeon was to make the soldiers cultivate the land in the frontier area, and to utilize the harvest as military provisions. Contrary to this, the Hogeupdunjeon was a system of lending seed grains to general households and then collecting the harvest in proportion to the seed grains in autumn, which was not different from tax increase in reality. The enforcement of land reform was not good enough to guarantee the financial stability. With the increased necessity to secure the military provisions after the consciousness of foreign crisis was raised, King Taejong introduced this Hogeupdunjeonje. The enforcement aspect of Hogeupdunjeonje could be largely divided into two parts. The Hogeupdunjeon targeting the general households collected about 45,000 seoks a year. On the other hand, the Hogeupdunjeon targeting the public slaves collected around 300,000 seoks a year. In case of those public slaves, the seed grains were distributed not to each household, but to each slave while the repayment ratio of harvested grain was very high compared to general households. For this reason, a considerable amount of rice in stock could be secured within several years after enforcing the Hogeupdunjeonje. Even though the Hogeupdunjeonje was working as a chance to secure the rice close to 1.5 million seoks, it was such a big burden to general households, so it was unnecessary to maintain the system after securing the stable amount of rice in stock. Thus, it was enforced for a short period of time from the 9th year to 14th year of King Taejong’s reign. However, the securement of rice by this system must be importantly contributing to strengthening the foundation of financial operation in the early days of the Joseon Dynasty.

조선초 대열의(大閱儀)의 의례 구조와 정치적 의미

소순규 ( Soon Kyu So ) 고려대학교 역사연구소 2012 사총 Vol.75 No.-

This study attempts to shed new light on the military rites of the Joseon dynasty, a topic which related studies have by and large avoided, by analyzing the royal military review ceremony conducted during early Joseon. The term daeyeol (大閱, military review) refers to a royal ceremony in which the Joseon king conducted a direct review of the military forces. This was regarded as a military training ceremony that fell under the category of the ``ritual ceremonies`` that made up the gunnye (軍禮, military rites) portion of the Orye (五禮, Five Rites), or national state rites during Joseon. The structure of the royal military review ceremony was designed to clearly highlight the fact that control over the military was the prerogative of the king and that the latter was also the main actor in such military reviews. The daeyeol (military review) was first implemented during the early reign of King Sejong. The importance of daeyrol was further emphasized during the period spanning from the reign of King Sejong to that of King Seongjeong. As such, the status of the daeyeolui (大閱儀, royal military review ceremony) was eventually upgraded to the point where it was included in the Oryeui (五禮儀, Five Rites) section of the <Sejong sillok (世宗實錄, Annals of King Sejong)>. Thereafter, military training methods underwent great changes before this particular ceremony was included in the <Gukjo oryeui (國朝五禮儀, Five Rites of State≫. The implementation of the royal military review ceremony served two purposes: while was to showcase the Icing`s supreme command over the military, the other was to rally the troops prior to a large-scale military operation. In this regard, the royal military review ceremony was implemented right before the onset of Jurchen conquest campaigns.

조선전기 공노비의 선상(選上) 입역(入役) 규정 연구

소순규 ( So Soon-kyu ) 고려대학교 민족문화연구원 2021 민족문화연구 Vol.90 No.-

There are many studies on the service system of the Joseon Dynasty. However, there are not relatively many studies on slaves selected and sent up to each central capital bureau and their service. Aspects of operation of the official salve system and the arrangement process of the obligation and service regulations of tribute-paying slaves, slaves selected and sent up to the capital, and service slaves in the Joseon dynasty were clarified through the existing studies. However, the obligation and service regulations of these slaves leave place for reconsidering several things. This thesis traced the arrangement process of the service regulations of slaves selected and sent up to the capital in the early Joseon Dynasty and their obligations according to the process and drew the conclusions that are somewhat different from those of the existing studies. According to the regulations of the slaves selected and sent up to the capital that were arranged in earnest since the reign of Taejong of Joseon, slaves selected and sent up to the capital were imposed on the slaves (奴) who reside in local areas and two female slaves, the sustainers, were provided for them. The slaves selected and sent up to the capital serviced three times taking turns and generally, the service period was 6 months. However, these slaves’ turn was various according to the situations that each capital bureau had them. Accordingly, their obligations were various. The number of service of the slaves selected and sent up to the capital was changed to 11 times for the local areas and 13 times for Gyeonggi in the reign of Danjong of Joseon as it was drastically increased. Accordingly, the slaves selected and sent up to the capital serviced for 6 months per 5 or 6 years. This number was again reduced and changed to 7 times in the reign of Seongjong of Joseon and the relevant contents were recorded in National Code (Gyeongguk daejeon). A service period shortened from 6 months to 3 in the reign of Jungjong of Joseon. Meanwhile, there continued to be payment for military service substitution about service of the slaves selected and sent up to the capital. The royal court that had put a ban on payment for military service substitution at first legally allowed it since the reign of Seongjong of Joseon and made the state decide payment for corvee service on the basis of public opinions. The then official price of the state was 32 meters of cotton cloth as the service price of one month. The service price that was actually used in non-official circles was the level that exceeded this. However, seeing that the service price of one month is 32 meters of cotton cloth in the materials that show the situations of the late 16th century, it can be thought that the service price of the national official price was social custom.

조선전기 요역(徭役)의 종목 구분과 차정(差定) 방식에 대한 검토

소순규 ( So Soon Kyu ) 고려대학교 역사연구소 2019 사총 Vol.96 No.-

In this study, previous studies of the categorization and method of division of labor services owned to the nation (this type of labor services was termed ‘Yoyuk’) in the early Chosun Dynasty were reviewed and analyzed, and based on the findings, this study has made an argument. As for labor services owned to the nation in the early Chosun Dynasty, this study primarily focused on the review of a pervious study by Ari Tomonori(有井智德). In his study, Sogyungyoyuk (所耕徭役), Labor services owned to the nation were categorized into Sogyungyoyuk assigned arbitrarily and miscellaneous services (this type of labor services was termed ‘Japyuk’(雜役)), assigned in consideration of the no. of People(人丁), and the method of division of labor services owned to the nation was eclectic at first, considering both no. of population and land areas and then, changed to a relay method in which only arbitration decisions were considered. His study was followed by Korean researchers, and although his claim on such changes in the method of division of labor services owned to the nation was generally accepted, not the categorization. On the other hand, the author has found his claim for the categorization reasonable, but not the changes in the method of division. The miscellaneous labor services, categorized by Ari Tomonori(有井智德), could be expressed using a term ‘Hoyuk (戶役)’ and in this case, it would be possible to remove the ground for an argument for his research. In addition, if labor services owned to the nation were made in the dualistic fashion: Sogyungyoyuk and Hoyuk, the division of labor services owned to the nation should have been made in the dualistic fashion as well. Therefore, it would be reasonable to believe that the division of labor services was made through two methods: an eclectic method and a relay method. One of critical topics in the research of division of labor services owned to the nation is Hodeungjae(戶等制) and in fact, it was also operated in the dualistic manner and Yeokminsik(役民式)’ introduced in the reign of King Sung-Jong was also closely related with Hodeungjae(戶等制).

『신증동국여지승람』 토산 항목의 구성과 특징

소순규 ( Soon Kyu So ) 연세대학교 국학연구원 2014 동방학지 Vol.165 No.-

The Revised and Augmented Survey of the Geography of Korea (Sinjeung dongguk yeoji seungnam), published in the sixteenth century, is considered one of the two most important geographical texts of the early Joseon Dynasty, alongside the Geographical Appendix to the Annals of King Sejong (Sejong sillok jiriji), written a century earlier. Although they share the same subject, the two texts differ significantly in their purpose and organization. The primary difference is in the way they document local products. For instance, the Geographical Appendix to the Annals of King Sejong covers four or five local product categories for each do (道) and for the smaller administrative districts known as gun (郡) and hyeon (縣). The section on local products was essentially a categorized record of items collected from each region as a form of tax. However, the comparable section in the Revised and Augmented Survey of the Geography of Korea discusses items under the comprehensive category of tosan (土産) or ``local goods.`` In addition, the preface and usage guide that precede the main text do not mention which specific local goods are included. This paper examines the items listed in the Revised and Augmented Survey of the Geography of Korea and seeks to assess the accuracy of the documentation. To this end, information about the local products in this text were compared to those in the Geographical Appendix to the Annals of King Sejong as well as later geographical literature covering the whole of Korea, such as the Geography of Korea (Dongguk yeojiji) and Cultural Geography of Korea (Yeoji doseo). Other local publications (eupji, 邑誌) from the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries with a limited geographical scope were also compared to gain a wider perspective. It was found that the Revised and Augmented Survey of the Geography of Korea focused only on products associated with specific regions, while excluding commodities that were more widely grown, such as grains. In addition, it recorded only goods that were actually produced in each region rather than all of the goods a local community was required to deliver as tribute to the royal court and the central government. Notably, the Revised and Augmented Survey only documents raw commodities and not their derivatives in the form of intermediate or finished goods. The items mentioned in this text overlap significantly with those in other geographical texts published one or two centuries later. This indicates that the Revised and Augmented Survey of the Geography of Korea was precise in its account of what was being produced in the various regions of the Joseon Dynasty in the sixteenth century. This differs from the Annals of King Sejong, in which goods are organized according to the system of tribute tax; this document was written for a distinct purpose, and the practice of tribute collection had evolved over time.

조선 세조대 공물 대납 공인(公認)의 정책적 맥락

소순규 ( So Soon-kyu ) 호남사학회 2018 역사학연구 Vol.72 No.-

This research aimed at investigating the process that partial permission for proxy payment of tribute, which began from King Sejong, became the full-scale permission during King Sejo, and determining the context of the policy of proxy payment of proxy in the process. Previous researches have treated proxy payment based on the correlation with Buddhism. However, according to the researcher’s investigation, proxy payment of tribute was conducted in two contexts, the aspect of settlement of the natural contradiction of tribute system and the aspect of support for Buddhist monks. The officers, who were negative about tribute during that time, criticized the whole tribute as an abnormal system or support for Buddhism, based on the situation where Buddhist monks intervened in proxy payment. Nevertheless, Sejong, Munjong, and Sejo fully perceived the purpose of permitting proxy payment and the situation which required proxy payment, when they responded to such criticism. Tribute proxy payment, firstly applied during Sejong, originally intended to settle the contradiction of tribute system itself. However, as Sejong became pro-Buddhism during his latter years, accordingly, as proxy payment right in Buddhism was extensively permitted, tribute proxy payment became deeply associated with the matter of Buddhism. The government officials strongly insisted on abolition of proxy payment during Munjong, after Sejong’s death, however since Munjong comprehended the political intention of proxy payment, he expressed a careful position on the abolition of it. Sejo was also in the same position as Munjong during his initial years, however he fully adopted proxy payment in his middle stages, all the more, implementing definitely different proxy payment policy. Sejo’s full-scale permission for proxy payment required several subordinate policies, such as calculation of proxy payment value, organization of proxy payment procedure, etc. Also, proxy payment policy also influenced revision of tribute system during the latter stages of Sejo’s reign, tribute of each Gun Hyeon was arranged(分定) as the existence of Buddhistic tribute. Nevertheless Sejo’s full-scale permission for proxy payment, Buddhist persons’ intervention in proxy payment was not prevented, and problems such as delay of tribute payment occurred. Accordingly, Sejo’s full-scale permission for proxy payment was eliminated along with enthronement of Yejong after Sejo.