역사적 배경과 문맥적 접근을 바탕으로 스가랴 1:11하반 새롭게 번역하기

방기민 (재)대한성서공회 성경번역연구소 2024 성경원문연구 Vol.- No.54

This paper aims to suggest an alternative translation and exegetical ideas for Zechariah 1:11b, a report by a horse rider after patrolling the whole earth in the first night vision of Zechariah. Bible translators conventionally translate כָל־הָאָרֶץ יֹשֶׁבֶת וְשֹׁקָטֶת as “the whole earth at rest and in peace”(NIV 2011). However, this conventional translation causes problems in terms of historical and literary contexts: (1) the second year of Darius the Great was not peaceful, so such a translation creates discrepancies with biblical history; (2) Rather than praising God after the report, the messenger of Yahweh laments. Thus, the nuance of the messenger’s report must have been negative. To find a better translation for Zechariah 1:11b, it first discusses the historical context of the second year of Darius the Great with Herodotos’s Histories and the Bisitun inscription. All written historical resources witness severe political and military conditions against Darius the Great. Darius’s early reign was never peaceful. Second, it discusses its literary context and the occurrences of two keywords יֹשֶׁבֶת and שֹׁקָֽטֶת, which may have deeper meanings than “remains at peace and rest.” Through case studies of these two vocabularies, this paper suggests translating יֹשֶׁבֶת as the gesture of sitting in depression and frustration, and שֹׁקָטֶת as the gesture of dropping hands and heads after being defeated by someone. The new suggested translation of Zechariah 1:11b may affect the translation and exegesis of the entire book of First Zechariah. It shows a pattern of moving from depression and frustration to encouragement and resilience. The eight night visions of Zechariah may imply repeated patterns of frustration and resilience, possibly thanks to the continuous ministry of Zechariah for the people of Yehud during the five years of reconstructing the Second Temple.

초기 이스라엘, 블레셋, 기후변화와 이주 -지중해 배경에서 히브리 성서 읽기의 사례

방기민 부산외국어대학교 지중해지역원 2019 지중해지역연구 Vol.21 No.3

This paper is a case study on reading the Hebrew Bible in the Mediterranean context. In my earlier article, “Reading the Hebrew Bible in the Mediterranean Setting” (2019), I addressed the importance of the climatic and geological setting of the Hebrew Bible. As another case study from this perspective, this paper examines selected biblical passages regarding early Israel and Philistine conflicts in the broader context of the Eastern Mediterranean world. The specific time period is around the Late Bronze Age Collapse (roughly 1,250 - 1,000 B.C.E). I hypothesize that these ethnic/cultural conflicts and the Late Bronze Age Collapse were caused or spurred by climate change. To demonstrate my hypothesis, I will explore the Late Bronze Age Collapse of the Eastern Mediterranean and the possible causes of the Philistine migration in the second and third parts of this research. Many theories attempt to explain the cause of the rapid and significant civilization collapse. Since Carpenter (1966) rejected a traditional argument that attributes the invasions of barbarian peoples; such as the Dorians, as an explanation for the Dark Age, alternative views have been suggested. For example, alternative views might include the Hekla III eruption (Yurco 1999), droughts (Weiss 1982), collapse of the social and trade system (Liverani 1987), wars (Drews 1993), earthquake storms (Nur, Cline 2000), and climate change (Finné et al. 2017; Kaniewski et al. 2013; Drake 2012; Stiebing, Jr. 1994; Weiss 1982). After reviewing research on the Late Bronze Age collapse in Greek-Mycenae, Hittite, and Egypt, respectively, this paper demonstrates how climate change became a trigger for the failure of the Bronze Age and for massive migrations of the Sea People, including the Philistines, who caused the early Israelites to suffer a national crisis and lament the deaths of their beloved heroes (Samson, and Saul). In conclusion, we can find two historical and biblical lessons by reading the Hebrew Bible in the background of the Late Bronze Age Collapse. First, the effect of the climate change, 3,200 years ago, was so severe that it not only caused a general collapse of civilization in the Mediterranean, but also caused the Sea People to leave their home. Eventually, the early Israelites suffered the butterfly effect from their migration. The second discovery reveals an historical irony. The descendants of ancient Greeks who migrated to North Africa and the Levant, including modern Syria, do not welcome descendants of ancient North African and Levantine people today. The Hebrew Bible (e.g., Lev. 19:33-34), written for/through the hands of ancient Israelites, who suffered under Philistine authority, provides surprising context and wisdom to solve today’s immigration/refugee issue.

고대 동지중해의 애도와 애곡을 통한 저항 탐구

방기민 한국서양사학회 2023 西洋史論 Vol.- No.157

본 논문은 고대 동지중해 문헌으로부터 찾을 수 있는 애곡과 애도를 통한 저항의세 가지 사례를 탐구한다. 이 사례들은 한국의 촛불 집회와 비교해볼 만하며, 오늘날 한국 사회를 살아가는 우리에게 몇 가지 의미심장한 통찰력을 던져준다. 여기서 다루어지는 사례는 (1) 그리스 문헌으로부터 발견되는 데메테르와 페르세포네 이야기(테스모포리아), (2) 사사기 11장에 수록된 입다의 딸 인신공희와 해마다반복되는 여성들의 추모제, (3) 시편 137편이 보여주는 해마다 반복되는 예루살렘파괴와 강제 이주에 관한 침묵과 금식제(티샤 베-아브)이다. 세 사례에서 보여주는애도와 애곡을 통한 저항 사례들은 반란, 혁명과 달리 저항의 명백한 형태들을 보여주지는 않는다. 그러나 이들은 분명하고 폭력적 형태의 저항보다 더 의미심장하다. 이러한 애도와 애곡을 통한 평화로운 저항은 궁극적으로 그들의 사회를 변화시켰을 뿐 아니라 오늘날의 독자들에게 여러 가지 중요한 메시지와 희망을 주기때문이다.

지중해 배경에서 히브리 성서 읽기

방기민 부산외국어대학교 지중해지역원 2019 지중해지역연구 Vol.21 No.1

This paper aims to address the importance of the Mediterranean setting for the study of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. A region’s climatic pattern and geological conditions are important in the formation of its religion and history of longue durée (Fernand Braudel). Unfortunately, the twentieth-century western scholarship of the Hebrew Bible has ignored these natural elements in their study of the religious and historical texts, as Theodore Hiebert (1996/2007) has concluded. In this article, I demonstrate that the climatic and geological setting of the East Mediterranean, or the Levant, is crucial to interpreting the Hebrew Bible in multi-dimensions. For this purpose, the paper discusses the following exemplary Mediterranean religions and Hebrew Bible passages that illustrate the usefulness of reading the Hebrew Bible in the context of a Mediterranean setting. (1) The Ba‘alu cycle and Demeter myth of Israel’s neighbors demonstrate that climatic patterns played important roles in myth-making in the Mediterranean regions. (2) The Föhn effect in Israel creates different environmental settings between the west and the east of the central hills. The Föhn wind causes the east parts to be arid and without rain. However, grasses grow, and flowers blossom in the wilderness of the rainy season thanks to rainfall flowing down from the central hills. Dramatic changes in the Judean wilderness landscape caused by flowing water (wadi) might have inspired some eschatological visionaries (Isaiah 35:6-7; 43:19-20). (3) The Fall feast or the feast of Booths played a central role in Israel’s religion. It was celebrated not only in memory of wilderness life (Leviticus 23:33-43) but also for the restoration of the rainy season in the Fall (Psalm 126). Jeroboam’s reform of the calendar (1 Kings 12:31-33) was understood as apostasy by the Deuteronomistic historian. However, it should have been understood as an insertion of a leap month to adjust to the difference between the lunar calendar (roughly 355 days) and the actual seasons based on the solar calendar (365 days). (4) The Book of Amos and Psalm 46 can be understood better in light of a tectonic earthquake (ca. 750 BCE). This earthquake of 7.8-8.2 magnitude probably occurred north of the kingdom of Israel, or today’s Lebanon (Austin-Franz-Frost 2000) and devastated many anti-Assyrian coalition countries. The epicenter’s location and estimated magnitude are very helpful when analyzing historical mysteries, such as the rapid decline of the northern kingdom after Jeroboam II’s most glorious period, or how the Assyrian king was able to conquer enemies through short Blitzkrieg, how weaker Judah survived longer than stronger Israel, and so on. These case-studies above could motivate Hebrew Bible researchers to pay greater attention to the Eastern Mediterranean’s environmental and geographical setting.

역사적 배경과 문맥적 접근을 바탕으로 스가랴 1장 11절 하반절 새롭게 번역하기

방기민 장로회신학대학교 성서학연구원 2023 성서학 연구원 저널 Vol.117 No.-

아모스서 통일성 논쟁에 대한 재고: 아모스의 지진을 중심으로

방기민 한국신학정보연구원 2023 Canon&Culture Vol.17 No.2

이 논문의 목적은 아모스서의 통일성 문제를 재고찰하는데 있다. 학자들 은 아모스서가 한 번에 쓰여진 책이라기 보다는 최소 3단계에서 최대 6단계 에 걸쳐 작성된 것으로 보았다. 그 까닭은 아모스서의 예언이 앗시리아에 의한 북이스라엘 멸망이나 남유다의 멸망 및 재건과 같은 후대의 사건들에 대한 암시를 포함하고 있는 것처럼 보였기 때문이다. 본 논문에서는 기원전 750년경에 일어난 규모 7.8-8.2로 추정되는 지진 에 대한 이해를 바탕으로 아모스서에 기록된 대부분의 심판이 아모스의 지진 으로 성취되었을 수 있음을 논의하고, 아모스서 대부분이 아모스에 의해 직접 선포되었을 수 있다는 주장을 입증하려 노력한다. 아모스 지진에 대해 살펴보기 위해 (1) 고고학자들과 지질학자들의 연구, (2) 스가랴와 요세푸스, (3) 시편 46편을 살펴보며, 이를 바탕으로 아모스 지진의 양상을 살핀다. 그런 다음 (4) 앞선 연구를 바탕으로 아모스서 구절들 을 처음부터 끝까지 새롭게 읽는다. 본 연구로 아모스서의 완전한 통일성을 입증하기는 어렵더라도, 아모스 서의 보다 많은 부분이 8세기 중엽에 집필되었을 수 있음을 독자들이 동의할 수 있을 것이다. 아모스서 1장 1절은 아모스서 전체를 이해하는 핵심 구절이 며, 우리에게 회개를 요구하는 하나님 및 기후위기와 같은 자연재난을 통해 심판하시는 하나님이라는 신학적 주제에 대하여 보다 심도 깊은 후속연구를 기대한다. The purpose of this paper is to reconsider the unity of the book of Amos. Scholars have seen that the book of Amos was written in at least three (Robert Coote) to a maximum of six stages(Hans Walter Wolff), rather than a book written at one time. The reason is that the prophecies in Amos seemed to contain allusions to later events, such as the destruction of northern kingdom (Israel) by neo-Assyria and the destruction and rebuilding of southern kingdom (Judah). This paper suggests that most of the judgments recorded in the book of Amos could have been accomplished by the earthquake of Amos, based on the understanding of the earthquake estimated to have a magnitude of 7.8-8.2 that occurred around 750 B.C. In order to examine the Amos earthquake, (1) studies by archaeologists and geologists, (2) Zechariah and Josephus, and (3) Psalm 46 are examined, and based on this, the aspects of the Amos earthquake are examined. Then it re-reads (4) the verses of Amos from cover to cover anew based on previous research. Although it is difficult to prove the complete unity of the book of Amos by this study, readers may agree that more of the book of Amos could have been written in the middle of the 8th century by Amos the prophet.

고대 이스라엘과 블레셋, 갈등에서 협력으로

방기민 ( Ki-Min Bang ) 한국서양고대역사문화학회(구 한국서양고대사학회) 2021 서양고대사연구 Vol.60 No.-

이 논문은 고대 이스라엘과 블레셋의 관계를 새로운 관점으로 재해석하기 위한 것이다. 고대 이스라엘과 블레셋은 큰 갈등으로 알려져 있었으나, 갈등 뿐 아니라 협력하는 관계 역시 있었다. 이 목적을 위하여 본 논문은 (1) 브로델의 지중해의 산지 거주민과 평지 거주민 간의 갈등과 협력관계에 대한 유형을 살피고, (2) 블레셋과 고대 이스라엘의 갈등, 변화, 협력에 관한 고고학적인 증거들을 검토한다. 그런 다음 (3) 히브리 성서를 다시 읽어나가며 블레셋과 고대 이스라엘이 갈등 뿐 아니라 여러 협력관계를 만들어 왔음을 재발견 하고자 한다. 그 중에 다윗 왕때 고대 이스라엘 왕국의 번영은 브렛 사람들과 그렛 사람들과 같이 블레셋과 관련된 이들의 협력을 토대로 한 것이라는 사실을 볼 때 오늘날 한국 사회를 살아가는 성서 독자들에게도 의미심장한 메시지를 던져줄 것이다. This paper aims to re-interpret the relationship between ancient Israelites and their neighborhoods, the Philistines, from a new perspective. They are known for severe conflicts; however, they also had a good cooperative relationship. For this purpose, this paper: (1). explores a model of the relationship between the Mediterranean mountain dwellers and plain dwellers based on Braudel’s studies of Mediterranean history, then (2). reviews archaeological evidence for conflict, changes, and cooperation between ancient Israel and the Philistines, and finally (3). re-reads the Hebrew Bible to discover the forgotten relationship of cooperation between the Philistines and ancient Israel. These observations of cooperative relationship between ancient Israel and the Philistines, especially in the reign of King David, can provide significant lessons and hints for us today to better societies with multicultural and multi-ethnic settings.

회복의 읽기를 통한 여호수아 헤렘 본문의 윤리적 해석

방기민(Ki-Min Bang) 한국구약학회 2021 구약논단 Vol.27 No.1

This paper suggests an alternative way to interpret Joshua herem passages today. The book of Joshua has led to a history of problematic biblical receptions that justify ancient and modern genocides. Its nuance, advocating for genocides and massive killings in the name of God, has challenged many Christians and non-Christians alike. It has also become an obstacle to the spread of the Gospel. For this purpose, this paper uses contemporary hermeneutical research methods, especially ‘reading of recovery’ (Horrell, Hunt, and Southgate, 2010). By comparing God’s speeches with Joshua’s speeches and practices, a reader of the book of Joshua finds that Joshua committed many mistakes. Case studies on the selected texts in Joshua (chapters 1, 2-6, 7-8, 9-10, and 11) demonstrate that God has not spoken of killing all the Canaanite people. However, Joshua and the people of Israel probably misunderstood God’s commandments and then mistakenly killed indigenous people. An alternative reading of Joshua suggested in this paper may provide an interpretation that prevents justifying genocides in the name of God. Therefore, it could extend an invitation to those who have been disturbed by the justification of killings back into the Christian community.

성서 퍼포먼스 비평과 성경 번역 - 제임스 맥시(James A. Maxey)의 연구를 중심으로 -

방기민(Ki-Min Bang) 대한성서공회 2020 성경원문연구 Vol.0 No.47

The purpose of this paper is to introduce a new paradigm of Bible Translation to the Korean church community. James A. Maxey who was a Lutheran Bible Translators missionary for more than twenty years in Cameroon suggests that Bible Translation may be performed better through oral performance and contextualization. This paper summarizes his idea and two crucial points, and evaluates them for Korean Bible translation in the future. First of all, this paper discusses assumptions and problems in previous Bible Translations that ignore orality in the original text and target language context, especially in uncivilized countries and communities. Then it introduces a brief history of biblical performance criticism as this emerging new discipline may still be unfamiliar to many in Korean scholarly societies. After that, two critical points of James A. Maxey’s argument are discussed and appreciated. The first important point in Maxey’s work is that the community in the New and Old Testament had an oral culture. More than 90% of the population were illiterate. Nevertheless, previous scholarship has often ignored the orality but focused on the literary understanding of the Bible. Maxey points out the importance of orality for New Testament studies and for an African context of Bible Translation based on common arguments and contributions from Biblical Performance Criticism scholarly group. The second important point is the importance of contextualization. Although there is some opposition to contextualization and syncretism, recent missiologists including Robert J. Schreiter and Steve Bevans argue that contextualization and inculturation are significantly necessary parts for Bible Translation and mission. Maxey’s two points may provide the Korean church community with many potential contributions and challenges together. His understanding of oral (including paralinguistic and extralinguistic) performance and Bible Translation may provide Bible translators with some fresh insights, improve Bible Translation in the mission field, and also make younger Korean generation who prefer modern media over traditional written media have greater access to the Bible and its message. However, his points of contextualization and inculturation may still need some additional time to be accepted by the Korean church community, but are still worth trial for the marginalized communities such as the deaf and people with other disabilities.

‘하나님의 싸움’ 모티프 연구로의 초대

방기민(Ki-Min Bang) 한국기독교학회 2020 한국기독교신학논총 Vol.116 No.-

이 논문에서 필자는 전통적으로 혼돈과의 싸움이라고 알려진 하나님의 싸움 모티프에 관한 간추린 연구사를 제시하고자 한다. 그리고 동시에 하나님의 싸움 모티프가 한국에서 덜 다루어지게 된 원인으로 보이는 신학적 난점을 극복하고, 한국 학계도 이 중요한 모티프에 관한 관심을 가지게끔 하는 작업을 시도하려고 한다. 이 연구의 목적을 위하여 먼저 용어상 문제점을 다루고, 하나님의 싸움 연구사를 크게 세시대로 분류하여 요약하였다. 마지막으로 결론에서 하나님의 싸움 모티프가 지닌 다양한 학제 간 연구를 위한 잠재력을 소개하며, 이 모티프가 잠재적으로 가진 신학적 문제(이원론)를 극복하는 방안을 다루었다. 하나님의 싸움 모티프는 여러 가지 신학적 성서학적 질문들에 답할 수 있는 가능성을 가지고 있으며, 성경을 보다 조직적으로 읽을 수 있는 신학적, 성서학적 관점으로 사용될 수 있을 것이다. This paper provides a brief history of the research of God’s combat motif, also known as Chaoskampf, and suggests ideas to solve some difficulties that have prevented the Korean church from paying sufficient attention to this important theme. For the purpose, this paper ① discusses merits and problems of specific terms (Chaoskampf, Combat Myth, Conflict Myth, God’s Combat/battle), ② describes a brief history of God’s battle motif into three stages (a. 1895~1929, b. 1929~1985, and c. 1985~present) with evaluations, and then ③ addresses potentials of this motif for various inter-disciplinary theological researches and ways how to solve a theological problem, a dualism implied in some forms of the motif. Most crucial moments in the development of this topic may include the publication of Hermann Gunkel’s Creation and Chaos (1895/2006), Sigmund Mowinckel’s suggestion of YHWH’s enthronement festival and psalms (1922), the discovery of Ras Shamra (1929), debates on the types of divine warrior motif (Jeremias, Cross/Miller) and ultimately John Day’s publication of God’s Conflict with the Dragon and the Sea, and various subsequent researches. God’s battle motif has many advantages to answer several theological and biblical questions and may serve as one of the essential theological and biblical lenses to read the Bible systematically.