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동·서 올로스 반란에 대한 쿠빌라이의 대응 ― 나얀과 카이도의 난을 중심으로 ―
류병재 한국몽골학회 2013 몽골학 Vol.0 No.34
The ‘rebellion’ of Nayan and Qaidu against Qubilai Qa'an is a historic issue that is often referred to as a symbolic event of so-called ‘the disruption of the Great Mongol Empire(Yeke Mongγol Ulus).’ Moreover, it is historically known that these two masterminds of rebellion raised rebellions against Qubilai in each region and confederated together with each other to attempt to double upon Qubilai. The purpose of this study was to compare Nayan's rebellion against Qubilai with Qaidu's in the reign of Qubilai Qa'an, both of which were typical rebellions in Left and Right Wing Ulus, so that it could make further examinations into how Qubilai reacted to their rebellions. And based on analysis about his reactions, this study sought to examine the reasons why there could be differences, if any, in the extent and way of reactions to these two rebellions. Methodologically, this study adopted possible diversified views of Tului family - referred to as ‘the winner in history’ - about Qubilai, and turned away from the stigma of ‘rebellion’ and ‘insurrection’ marked artificially on figures who are ‘historic losers’ confronted with Qubilai, but sought to take more objective approach to examination of historical situations surrounding those rebellions. First, it was found that Nayan's rebellion was realized through blitzkrieg and bold military operations. Owing to lessons learned from long years of combats against Qaidu, Qubilai could promptly and boldly defeat the rebellion of Nayan, the monarch of east Ulus which was not so much far from the capitol of Qa'an Ulus. Apart from Western historic records that demonstrate movements of Nayan to confederate with Qaidu, this study examined medieval Chinese historic documents, but the latter documents showed no evidence enough to match Western records. Qubilai took a bold approach of ‘blitzkrieg’ to reaction to Nayan's rebellion, but took a mild approach of 3 basic policies, i.e. ‘reconciliation’, ‘tolerance’ and ‘frontier defense’ to reacting to Qaidu's rebellion: Rather, Qubilai respected the authority of a monarch from Chinggis Khan's royal family. It is commonly known that from a collective league called ‘Talas Khuriltai(1269)’, Qaidu was elected as a ‘Qa'an’ who could stand for the power of steppe region to set up against Qubilai and took ‘adaptive and obedient’ attitudes to Qubilai even till the first half of 1280's, not attempting to overturn the ancien regime of Qa'an Qubilai's court over about 4 decades, and Qaidu's forces were absolutely inferior to Qa'an's ones in military aspect as well. This study focused on these points of history. However, Qa'an's forces abided largely by defense-oriented policies on the basis of stronghold around Mountain Altai, even though they already took absolute dominance of military power over Qaidu. Qubilai considered these political and military positions to keep his own political covenant with Qaidu - that is, a covenant that shall grant sovereign power to Alghu over central Asian abode of the Mongol Empire “from the Altai on the far side to the River Amudar'ja (Oxus).” Qaidu used the covenant ingeniously: He intended to re-establish and secure ‘Ögödei Ulus’, an extinct Ulus, in central Asian region.
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류병재 한국몽골학회 2018 몽골학 Vol.0 No.55
The purpose of this study is to historically research into where the combat branch was exactly between Qaidu(海都) and Da Yuan(大元) Ulus military, which took place at the Altai Mountains in the eighth lunar month in 1301. This researcher tried to generally reconstruct a historical situation in those days through a documentary research and an on-site survey in addition to where the last ferocious battlefield of Qaidu is located at Altai Mountains through the primary exploration in July 2013 and the secondary local field survey of Altai in Mongolia in July 2016. It directly performed a field survey on place names, which were confirmed through a documentary historical-source research, exactly examined many terrain features and locations in those places, and then strived to historically investigate correctly into whether all of “region(地域)ㆍhistorical source(史料)ㆍhistorical fact(史實)” are consistent. These primary and secondary field surveys were performed an investigation into the locally place names and terrain features of which he informed, in addition to the evidence of a native old villager of Kazakh named ‘Temerzan Babakhan’. Synthetically analyzing through this, its historical region is comparatively determined as the whole area of Delüün Sum in Bayan-ölgii Aimag of the current Mongolian country. In other words, based on the center of Delüün Sum, it is consistent in “鐵堅古ㆍ迭怯里古ㆍ帖堅古 = Tegelkū” with Delüün uul(Дэлүүн уул; in Mongolian), “合剌合塔ㆍ哈剌答 = Qarāltū” with Qar qad(Хар хад; in Mongolian), and “兀兒禿 = Urtu” with Urt salaa(Урт салаа; in Mongolian) region.
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동해 울릉분지 남서부 해역에서의 가스 하이드레이트 안정영역
류병재,선우돈,장성형,오진용,Ryu Byong Jae,Don Sun woo,Chang Sung Hyong,Oh Jin yong 한국석유지질학회 1999 한국석유지질학회지 Vol.7 No.1
천연가스 하이드레이트는 고압 ·저온 조건하에서 물과 천연가스가 결합하여 형성된 고체상 화합물로 일반적으로 가스 하이드레이트로 불리며, 영구동토지역과 수심이 깊은 해저의 퇴적층에 광범위하게 분포되어 있다. 가스 하이드레이트 안정영역은 하이드레이트가 형성된 후 해리되지 않고 고체상으로 안정하게 부존될 수 있는 영역이다. 반사법 탄성파 단면 도에서 관찰되는 해저면 모방 반사면 (bottom simulating reflector; BSR)은 가스 하이드레이트의 부존을 지시하는 강진 폭의 반사면으로 가스 하이드레이트 안정영역의 하한에서 나타난다. 본 연구에서는 동해 울릉분지 남서부해역에서의 가스 하이드레이트 안정영역을 규명하고 탐사자료와 비교하여 가스 하이드레이트 부존 잠재력을 밝히고자 하였다. 연구지역에서 XBT (expandable bathythermograph)를 이용하여 수온구배를 측정하였으며, 지온구배는 인접지역의 시추공 자료를 이용하였다. 실험실에서 메탄가스와 NaCl $3.0 wt{\%}$수용액을 이용하여 가스 하이드레이트 평형압력은 274.15 K에서 2,920.2 kPa 그리고 289.95 K에서 18,090 kPa로. 측정되었다 연구지역에서의 가스 하이드레이트 안정영역 분석 결과 수심이 약 400 m인 지역의 경우 가스 하이드레이트 안정영역의 하한은 해저면으로부터 심도 약 210 m에, 수심이 1,100 m인 경우에는 해저면으로부터 심도 약 480 m에 위치하는 것으로 밝혀졌다. 또한 탄성파 탐사자료와 안정영역 분석 결과를 비교하여 볼 때 BSR이 나타나는 심도가 안정영역 하한의 심도와 거의 일치하였다. Natural gas hydrate, a solid compound of natural gas (mainly methane) and water in the low temperature and high pressure, is widely distributed in permafrost region and deep sea sediments. Gas hydrate stability field (GHSF), which corresponds to the conditions of a stable existence of solid gas hydrate without dissociation, depends on temperature, pressure, and composition of gas and interstitial water. Gas hydrate-saturated sediment are easily recognized by the bottom simulating reflector (BSR), a strong-amplitude sea bottom-mimic reflector in seismic profiles. It is known that BSR is associated with the basal boundary of the GHSF, The purpose of this study is to define the GHSF and its occurrence in the southwestern part of Ulleung Basin, East Sea. The hydrothermal gradient is measured using the expandable bathythermograph (XBT) and the geothermal gradient data are utilized from previous drilling results for the adjacent area. By the laboratory work using methane and NaCl $3.0 wt{\%}$ solution, it is shown that the equilibrium pressures of the gas hydrate reach to 2,920.2 kPa at 274.15 K and to 18,090 kPa at 289.95 K for the study area. Consequently, it is interpreted that the lower boundary of the GHSF is about 210 m beneath 400-m-deep sea bottom and about 480 m beneath 1,100-m-deep sea bottom. The resultant boundary is well matched with the depth of the BSR obtained from the seismic data analysis for the study area.
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류병재 한국몽골학회 2014 몽골학 Vol.0 No.39
The historic consciousness on Mongol world empire needs to be looked the direct view as saying of having overlooked ‘globality and totality’ that the Mongol empire has in the wake of having emphasized only ‘disruptiveness among individual khanate states’. The Mongolian Plateau, which was unified in 1206 by Chinggis Khan, and Mongol world empire, which was established by its descendants, are expanded the territory through the continuous conquest war. Thus, it has been believed as if being a historical fact as saying that even the relationship among ‘Chinggisid Altan uruγ’ just became estranged gradually. ‘The division theory of the Mongol empire’, saying that the Mongol empire was driven to the whirlpool of the division once again by the chaos in the process of transferring the throne of the Great Khan(Qa’an) from the Ögödei’s family to the Tului's family following the death of Chinggis Khan and by the emergence of ‘anti-Qubilai group’ of being represented as Qaidu even if a fight for the throne of the Great Khan between Arigh Böke and Qubilai in the Tului’s family seemed to come to a close as Qubilai’s victory in 1264, has become a big obstacle to the right historic recognition on the Mongol Empire. Accordingly, this study tried to examine by dividing the figures, who had formed direct and indirect relationship in the camp under the command of Qaidu, by Ulus in each. It looked at a situation, in which the figures under the command of Qaidu meet and part because of these people’s origins, political situation in those days, and interests, through the data of Persia and the record of historical materials in Chinese character. The figures of the Jochi ulus, especially, Qonichi and others of the Orda ulus played a great role in the early growth of Qaidu. The figures of the Chagatai ulus were either devoted under the command of Qaidu after the leadership of Central Asia following the death of Baraq handed over to Qaidu, or left for the camp of Qubilai as the Great Khan following this. The figures of the Ögödei ulus gathered together focusing on Qaidu in order to restore their Ulus that vanished into nothing, and then strived to re-build Ögödei ulus in Central Asia. It examined the figures of the Tului ulus that there are also people who obeyed by coming themselves to the camp of Qaidu in the wake of disharmony with Qubilai, but there were people as well who returned again to the camp of Qubilai following the passage of the certain period. It confirmed that even some of the Amīrs and the generals yielded submission by coming themselves to the camp of Qaidu due to being afraid of being reprimanded the failure in military operation, but had been included in the camp of Qaidu going after Chinggisid princes whom they follow. Through Persian and historical materials in Chinese character, the Chinggisid princes, Amīrs and generals who had served him under the command the camp of Qaidu can be considered not to have obeyed or done military operation by coming by themselves to the camp of Qaidu just for the purpose so-called ‘the overthrow of Shih Tsu(世祖) in Yuan(元), the hanisized Chinese Emperor who had been believed as of being the existing orthodoxy. A little much deeper research needs to be progressed. Yet, it confirmed that Qaidu and the figures under his command didn’t meet and part only as the Ögödei’s family, which did fight against Qubilai of the Tului’s family that had usurped the throne of the Great Khan, or as ‘a leader and a member of the traditionally nomadic group’ that stands up to the hanisized(漢化) Yuan dynasty(元朝) . Through analyzing these people’s origins, it confirmed that there were also people who shared political line and activity with him all through the period of Qaidu's activity and that there were quite a number of people, too, who surrendered to the side of Qubilai by calculating their political line, a political change in the Mongol Empire...
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