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김삼대자 한국미술사학회 2011 美術史學硏究 Vol.271272 No.271272
십 여 년 전 한 학부모의 제보로 내면에 〈홍무21년무진사월일조홍산지만수산무량사(洪武 二十一年 戊辰四月 日 造 鴻山地萬壽山無量寺)〉라는 조성기 명문이 있는 가구를 보았다. 홍무 21년은 고려시대인 1388년을 가르키며 가구의 양식이 고려 건축의 양식과 유사하여 한눈에 고려시대에 제작된 것임을 알 수 있었다. 조선 전기 이전의 가구에 대한 학계의 공인된 유물이나 자료가 없어 〈홍무이십일년무진사월〉 명 가구는조선시대의 가구에 선행하는 양식으로 가구의 편년이나 가구양식 연구에 중요한 자료로 여겨지지만, 아직까지 학계에 공식 보고되지는 못하였고 또 진위에 대한 논란이 있어 왔다. 나무를 다루는 장인을 통틀어 목수라고 부르는데 목수에는 대목(大木)과 소목(小木)이 있다. 대목과소목의 분류는 중국 송나라의 이계(李誡:明仲)가 1103년에 편찬한 『영조법식(營造法式)』에서 처음 보여진다. 우리나라에서도 고려시대에 소목장이라는 명칭이 『고려사(高麗史)』에 기록되어져 『영조법식(營造法式)』의 분류에 따라 대목장과 소목장의 분류가 이루어 졌음을 알 수 있다. 대목과 소목은 건물을 지을때 함께작업을 하므로 그 양식과 기법상 상호 긴밀한 영향을 주고 받았다. 이에 고려시대의 건축물인 안동 봉정사극락전 및 그 내부에 설치된 닫집, 부석사 무량수전의 후문과 우리나라의 장이라고 알려진 일본 쇼쇼인(正倉院)소장의 〈적칠문관목주자(赤漆文 木廚子)〉, 경기도 고양시 북한산의 삼천사지(三川寺址) 출토 금동투각 목가구부재, 철제돌쩌귀, 경첩, 고리, 시우쇠못 등과 〈홍무이십일년무진사월〉 명 장과의 양식을 비교하였다. 그 결과 고려의 건축양식과 가구에서 볼 수 있는 이중 문얼굴과 좌우비대칭의 널 사용, 쌍사면과 쌍사모 기둥, 삼각형으로 직절한 풍혈, 철제돌쩌귀, 경첩, 고리, 시우쇠못의 사용 등 고려의 양식적 특징과 동일한 양식을 하고 있음을 확인하였다. 또 이 가구의 제작연대를 알기 위해 실측을 하여 각 부분을 역대척도와 비교 분석한 결과 1956년 중국 산동 양산에서 발굴한 명 홍무 년간의 침몰선에서 출토된 31.8cm의 영조척〔骨尺〕이 정수나 절반의 척수혹은 짝수의 촌수로 정확히 환산되어 이 가구가 홍무 년간에 제작된 명의 영조척을 사용해서 제작하였다고 판단되었다. 명문의 서체에 있어서 ‘器’를 ‘( +尤/器)’로, ‘量’을 ‘旧+一+里’ 등으로 서사하는 예는 고려시대부터 조선시대 전반에 걸쳐 사용되었지만 근·현대에서는 사용되지 않는 이체자들이다. 이들 이체자를통하여 <홍무이십일년무진사월> 명 가구의 기록은 근현대에 서사되지 않고 홍무이십일년(1388) 당시에 서사된 명문임을 추찰할 수 있었다. 이상에서 본 바와 같이 <홍무이십일년무진사월> 명 가구는 고려 건축양식과 가구에서 볼 수 있는 양식을 보이고 있으며 명나라 홍무 년간의 영조척 사용, 명문의 서체가 근·현대에서 사용하지 않은 점 등으로 보아 명문의 내용과 같이 고려시대에 제작된 것임에 의심의 여지가 없다. About ten years ago, I was informed by a student’parents of the existence of a piece of old furniture inside which there is a dated inscription that reads‘the Fourth Month of the Wuchen Year (the 21st Year of the Hongwu Reign).’ The term Hongwu is an era name used during the Goryeo Dynasty, and the 21st year of the Hongwu reign corresponds to 1388. It was quite obvious to the naked eye that this furniture, in a style characteristic of Goryeo, was made during the Goryeo period. There is no surviving furnishing item confirmed to date from prior to the early Joseon period. Therefore, this chest with the dated inscription“the fourth month of the wuchen year (the 21st year of the Hongwu reign)”is considered invaluable for the window it may offer onto the style of pre-Joseon Korean furniture. However, its existence has not yet been made known in academia through official channels, and its authenticity is still in dispute. Artisans working with wood, or carpenters, are of two types according to the traditional distinction used in Korea: Daemok and Somok (cabinetmakers). The categories of Daemok and Somok first appeared in Yingtsao fashih (營造法式) compiled in 1103 by Li Jie (李誡), aChinese man of the Song Dynasty. In Korea, the term“Somokjang”is encountered in Goryeosa (History of the Goryeo Dynasty), indicating that Koreans also distinguished carpentry into two types according to the classification used in Yingtsao fashih (營造法式) Daemok and Somok worked together for construction of buildings, and the techniques used by the two types of carpenters were closely related and mutually influenced each other. In this paper, I compare the chest with the dated inscription“the fourth month of the wuchen year(the 21st year of the Hongwu reign)”with woodworks in two Goryeo-period buildings, including the Geungnakjeon Hall of Bongjeongsa Temple, a Goryeo temple located in Andong, and the canopy set up inside this hall; the rear door of the Muryangsujeon Hall of Buseoksa Temple; the red-painted wooden Buddha niche in Japan’s Shoshoin, believed to have been made in Korea; as well as gilt-bronze openwork wood furniture accessories, iron hinges, loops and wrought iron-nails, discovered at the former site of Samcheonsa Temple (Bukhansan Mountain, Goyang, Gyeonggi-do). The results of comparison confirm that this piece of furniture was made indeed in an identical style to Goryeo wood buildings and wood structural items, using the same double framework, asymmetric panels and sides and edges of columns with symmetric moldings, decorative corner spandrels, iron hinges, loops and wrought iron-nails; all typical details of wooden constructions from this period. Meanwhile, to determine its exact date of creation, the chest was measured, and the measurements of each section were compared with historical measuring tools. The results indicated that the measuring tool used for this chest was the Yeongjo yardstick (營造尺),31.8cm in length, an exemplar of which was found in a sunken ship discovered in 1956, off Liangshan in Shandong, China, believed to date from the Hongwu era; all measurements could be exactly converted into a whole unit of this yardstick or half of a unit or multiples of a unit. As for some of the characters used in the inscription, including‘ +尤’fo‘r gi(器) and‘ +一+里’fo‘r lyang(量)’, these are variants used between the Goryeo period and early Joseon, which were no longer used in subsequent eras; hence, confirming that the inscription also date from when this chest was made in 1388. Based on the evidence in terms of style, construction techniques, and structural pieces, as well as the use of the Yeongjo yardstick (營造尺) and the calligraphic style of theinscription, there is little doubt that the furniture with the dated inscription“the fourth month of the wuchen year (the 21st year of the Hongwu reign)”was made in Goryeo.
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金三代子 국립중앙박물관 1985 미술자료 Vol.- No.36
As late as the end of chos?n dynasty (1392-1910 4.D.) fans were used not only in daily life but for ceremonial and ritual purposes as well. Accordingly, their shapes, manufacturing materials, and names were different according to the use. Ch'?nyangs?n was used to cool oneself during summer. Wi jαngyongs?n was for royal court ceremonies and Aon s?n was used during wedding. Shamans had mus?n (巫扇) and dancers danced with mus?n (舞扇). Ch ’amy?ns?n was used to hide one's face behind it: During winter to protect the face from cold wind and during the mourning period following one's parents' death to shun the eyes of others. In terms of the shape, there are tαns?n, ch ?ps?n, and ch'αmyons?n. Tans?n is round and flat. Ch?ps?n, also known as chwilpuch ’ae, is folding fan. Its other names are Ch’widus?n, chopch ?ps?n, or kulsuls?n. Ch'amy?ngs?n, also called Ch angmy?n, has two handles to be held by both hands. It can be rolled from one handle to the other. These fans had various names depending on the materials and decorations. Wood leaves had been used to make Ch angmy?n. Later feather and silk were used on this fan. Straw, bamboo sheath, and reeds were woven to make tαns?n. Silk and paper were later used to make it. Tαn s?n gradually acquired social function as status symbol. In fact there were official regulations as to who could use what kind of tαns?n as late as the early Chos?n dynasty. Ch?ps?n o r folding fan began to be made in the Kory? dynasty, much later than tαns?n, as a result of the influence of Hoes?n of Japan, and were in use among the lower class. As the custom of carrying fans took root in the mid - Chos?n period, however, ch?ps?n, or folding fan, was in greater demand than tαns?n. Wider use of fans prompted their luxurious decoration in gold, silver, ox-horn, and lacquer. Some literati made more elaborate and better decorated fans. Around 1800 4.D. a great variety of tαns?n and ch?ps?n was made. Ch?ps?n was mainly carried by one as he went out on business or visit, while tαns?n was used at home. One notable example was P’yoj?ngs?n developed by Min T'ae-ho, whose penname was P’yoj?ng and who was a powerful politician in the late 19th centuty. P’yoj?ngs? n was based on various ch?ps?n and is regarded as the origin of hapchuks?n or fans with spokes made of double slips of bamboo.
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연륜연대법을 이용한 반닫이 가구의 과학적 연대측정과 산지추정
박원규,김요정,김삼대자 국립민속박물관 2007 민속학연구 Vol.0 No.21
This paper intended to scientifically set the historical dates of 17 Korean chests with a flap door, which are kept in 6 museums including National Folk Museum of Korea, using dendrochronology which was successfully applied to the research of Korean old architectures. The material for the research was restricted to pine trees only because in Korea, annual ring database necessary for scientific dating is available only for the pine trees. Measuring the absolute year by use of the annual ring age is advantageous in that it is accurate enough to make no error of even a year, but it is disadvantageous in that the wood for research should be perfect wood with bark. However, when wooden furniture or wooden crafted products are made, the bark gets trimmed so a part or the whole of sapwoods becomes broken so the average annual rings of the sapwoods should be calculated and the year of felling should be analogized, through which the time of the manufacture can be calculated. This paper attempted to clarify the changes in the Korean chests with a flap door by age after making the chronology of them. It also intended to investigate the origin of the wood through the patterns of annual rings, and further, to research the origin of the furniture. As a result of dating, it was found that most of the chests were made in the 19th century through the modern times. Among the investigated 17 Korean chests with a flap door, 3 was found to belong to the beginning of the 19th century, 2 to the 20th century, and the remaining 12 to the middle and the latter period of the 19th century. Most of them were concentrated in the period of the middle and the latter part of the 19th century so it was not reasonable to discuss the changes by period. However, if the changes should be discussed, the Korean chest with a flap door in Gyeongsang-do tended to have lower height as time went on. The average age of the wood used for the Korean chests with a flap door was over 130 years, and it had good quality. It was also found that the origin of the pine trees and the origin of the furniture couldn't be always consistent. The wood for furniture should have good quality so it was highly possible to transport wood (if it is not too huge in volume) from a long distance. Especially, as the wood resource became exhausted in the neighboring districts, the long-distance transportation of wood became active in the end of the 19th century and the commercial transaction of wood got generalized.
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