章炳麟(1869~1936)의 資本主義批判

千聖林(Chun Sung-Lim) 동양사학회 1992 東洋史學硏究 Vol.38 No.-

1920 , 30 년대 상해 면방직공장 여성노동자의 상태

천성림(Sung Lim Chun) 동아시아역사연구회 1997 동아시아역사연구 Vol.2 No.-

N/A

근대 중국의 빈곤여성 -`저화(猪花)`를 중심으로

천성림 ( Chun Sunglim ) 한국여성사학회 2014 여성과 역사 Vol.- No.20

19세기 중엽 이후 자본주의 생산체제의 전지구적 확립, 그리고 흑인 노예제폐지로 인해 서구 식민지는 염가의 노동력 확보가 절실했다. `저자(猪仔)`, 즉 중국의 쿨리는 개항 후 중국의 반식민지화에 따른 농촌의 황폐화와 실업자 증가 그리고 구미자본주의의 노동력 수요가 결합해 발생한 무자산의 이민노동자였다. `저화`는 1850년대 쿨리(저자)무역의 형성과 함께 등장한 여성들이다. 그녀들은 홀몸으로 이국땅에서 노동을 하던 중국 남성들의 범죄를 줄이고 이민지의 질서와 안정을 유지하기 위해 팔려나갔다. 입 하나 줄이고자 가장에 의해 팔려나가거나 인신매매업자의 달콤한 유혹에 넘어가 바다를 건너간 그녀들은 중국노동자를 위한 성적 봉사와 가사노동에 종사했다. 전통적 `인신매매`와 근대적성의 상품화가 결합한 것으로 볼 수 있다. 하지만 주의할 것은 그녀들 모두가 강제로 끌려간 것은 아니라는 점이다. 막 다른 골목에서 찾아낸 생존전략인 경우도 있고 일부는 성공을 거머쥐기도 했다. 비록 초기에는 쿨리 상대의 매춘여성에서 출발했지만 쿨리무역의 쇠퇴와 식민지의 개발에 따라 중국의 하층 여성들은 영국령 식민지와 미국, 동남아 등지에서 광산과 농장에서의 노동, 가정부 등 온갖 궂은 일을 하면서 오늘날 화교로 불리는 중국인 이민자 사회의 한 페이지를 장식했다. After the mid-19th century, due to globalization of capitalism and abolition of black slavery, the Western colonies were in desperate need of cheap labor. The `Zhuzi (猪仔)`, also known as Coolie, was an immigrant laborer without assets, a by-product of devastation in rural areas and increase in unemployment rate resulting from semi-colonialism after the opening of ports, combined with the demand for labor force and introduction of western capitalism. The `Zhuhua (猪花)` came into the scene with the Coolie trade in the 1850s. They were sent to foreign lands to reduce the crime rate of unaccompanied Chinese male laborers thereof, thus providing order and stability to the country of the immigrants. Some were sold by the head of the family to reduce household spending, while others were allured by human trafficking brokers through false promises, and the women ended up providing sexual and/or housework service to Chinese laborers. This can been seen as a combination of traditional human trafficking and modern sex commercialization. What should be noted is, however, that not all the Zhuhuas were forcefully taken to the foreign lands. Some chose to do so as a surviving strategy, and some made a fortune. Although the Zhuhuas started as prostitutes, they had to adopt a new way of life as the Coolie trade declined. So the low-class women started taking on other work such as plantation labor and maid service in British colonies, America and South-East Asia, which contributed to the establishment of the modern immigration society of the Chinese.

모성의 ‘발견’

千聖林(Chun Sung-Lim) 동양사학회 2004 東洋史學硏究 Vol.87 No.-

새로운 여성사 : 쟁점과 전망

千聖林(Chun Sung-lim) 역사학회 2008 역사학보 Vol.0 No.200

It is very important to construct a theory and methodology for Women's History that will give it the weight that it needs to become an Independent Department within the University system in the 21st Century. Within this Study I have investigated the issues/theories of Feminism, New Social History and Postmodernism that have influenced the history of women. These issues/theories were largely developed in the West but can contribute greatly to the discourse on East Asian Women's History. From appeal to the equality of sexes at the early stage of Feminism to recognize differences between women by race, class etc., there was a close correlation between Feminism and Women's History in Western study of Women's History. Feminist theory not only produces startling new discoveries when applied to familiar sources. It also stimulates a quest for new or neglected sources. In the United States, for example, feminist studies have presented new opportunities to historians of Chinesen women. But, as Post-colonial critic Gayatri Spivak said, "Western Feminism can be a cultural imperialism to the non-western world's women". Within this in mind the non-western Feminist historian must construct their theories based on the indigenous women's experience, solidarity and network.

淸末 女性解放論에 관한 一考察 - 『天義』報를 중심으로 -

천성림(Chun Sung Lim) 이화여자대학교 한국여성연구원 1992 여성학논집 Vol.8 No.-

Before the revolution of 1911 the main current of feminism in China was liberal feminism. However, "T'ien-i"(『天義』) which published by the pioneers of Chinese anarchists like Liu Shih-pei(劉師培) and his wife Ho Chen(何震) had more radical characters than the liberal feminism, because all writers for T'ien-i pao unfolded their feminism inspiring socialism and anarchism. They wrote confidently of the day when all gavrnment would be eliminated. Liu said, "Therefore, we stand for realizing the natural eqality of man, destroying artificial inequality, overthrowing every organ of rule, abolishing every association based on class or occupation, and uniting all the people of the world into one great mass to plan the complete happiness of mankind." Liu then drew up a sequence of stages beginning with the abolition of state and proceeding through eliminating national and racial boundaries, equalizing power, pleasure, and pain, and finally reaching absolute sexual equality. They advocated that home revolution, sex revolution and social revolution had to be performed at the same time, and reported that women of the lower classes, eapecially, women worker's miserable conditions as the product of industrialization under the pressure of imperialism, and pointed out that the causes which brought out their miserable conditions were up to inequality of distribution of property and exploitation of capitalists. More significantly, Liu wrote frequently of how industrialization resulted in the division of society into two classes, capitalists and workers. It is presummed that these feminism of "Tien-i" were influenced theoretically from the socialistic feminism of Europe which had predominated from the late 19th to early 20th century. Especially the feminism in "T'ien-i" has an eye to realization of eqality rather than liberty. Eventhough it was a diffrent line from the feminism which was the main current, it is thought to have a historical significance in the point that the violent anti-feudalism which was reflected in it is connected with the criticism on feudalism in New Culture Movement.

청 건륭기 산동 청수교반란의 배경

천성림 ( Sung Lim Chun ) 이화여자대학교 사학회 1988 梨大史苑 Vol.22-23 No.-

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첩에서 작은 마님으로 - 민국시기 첩의 지위와 신여성 -

천성림 ( Chun Sung-lim ) 한국여성사학회 2021 여성과 역사 Vol.- No.34

19세기말부터 중국에는 서양의 자유로운 연애 풍속과 함께 서양 민법이 규정한 ‘일부일처제’가 전파되었다. 여기에 더해 남녀평등 사조와 여권론도 전해지면서 중국의 계몽적 지식인들은 첩을 두는 것이 야만적, 후진적이고 여성의 지위를 하락시키는 ‘악습’이라고 비판했다. 이에 민국 시기 내내 첩 제도를 폐지하라는 호소가 이어졌다. 결국 남경국민정부가 1930년 반포한 신민법 이후 법률상 ‘첩’이라는 신분은 사라지게 되었다. 하지만 현실에서는 ‘작은 마님’ ‘둘째 마님’과 같은 이름으로 계속 존재했고 본처는 대체로 남편의 축첩을 묵인해주었다. 본처가 고소하지 않는 한, 남편은 첩을 두어도 중혼죄로 처벌받지 않았다. 오히려 첩은 이전보다 자유로운 신분이 되었다. 대부분 남편가족과 떨어져 살았고 원하면 언제든 이혼할 수 있었다. 한편, 민국 시기에는 고등교육을 받은 신여성들도 첩이 되는 경우가 많았는데 이는 “서로 사랑한다면 일부다처든 일처다부든 문제가 되지 않는다”는 이른바 ‘신성도덕’(새로운 성도덕)이 유행했기 때문이다. 여성의 학력이 몸값을 올리는 수단이 되면서 가정이 어렵거나 원하는 혼처를 찾지 못한 여성들이 첩이 되는 경우도 적지 않았다. Along with the idea of free marriage based on mutual consent, China adopted the Western notion of monogamy (“yifu yiqi zhi” or a system of one husband, one wife) from the end of the nineteenth century. As demands for gender equality and women’s rights were growing, Chinese Enlightenment intellectuals criticized concubinage as a barbaric custom, a vice that contributed to the low status of women. There were strong calls to ban concubinage throughout the period of Republican China. Under such pressure, in 1930, the Nationalist Government in Nanjing promulgated the New Civil Law that criminalized concubinage as adultery. However, high-ranking officials, generals, wealthy merchants, and even intellectuals, including teachers, continued to have concubines. Despite the criminalization of concubinage as adultery under Republican law, concubines continued to exist in the new name of “Second Wife.” Unless formally accused by the wife, a husband with a concubine would not be convicted of bigamy. Concubines began to enjoy more freedom than before: most of them lived separately from the husband and his family and could divorce him whenever they wanted. New women of the Republic often became concubines as well as they embraced the new sex moral that tolerated polygamous marriage of either one husband with multiple wives or one wife with multiple husbands as long as the union was based on mutual love. While the level of women’s education increased their value, educated new women, unable to find jobs or high-class husbands that met their expectations, chose to be concubines.

민족주의와 사회주의 , 무정부주의 - 청말 국수학파 (國粹學派)의 사회주의 인식 -

천성림(Sung Lim Chun) 이화사학연구소 1993 梨花史學硏究 Vol.20-21 No.-

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근대 중국 여성의 직업세계

千聖林(Chun Sunglim) 동양사학회 2006 東洋史學硏究 Vol.96 No.-

Economic power is the essential factor to determine women's social status. It was only after around 1930 that China enacted laws that gave women the rights to work and to inherit properties. Following this change, women came to have various jobs; some ended up as manual laborers such as factory girls, prostitutes, and maids while others served as mental workers like lawyers, teachers, doctors, nurses. and accountants. In addition, women also worked as waitresses, office girls, shopgirls, typists, police women and actresses. The expansion of the availability of jobs for women came in tandem with modernization of China. In this paper, I would examine the world of Chinese women's works during about a century from the opening of Chinese ports to foreign countries to the founding of the People' Republic of China. More specifically, this study would inspect types and conditions of Chinese women's work, social recognition of their work and the social change resulting from the increased entry of women into public affairs. The women and labor issues were regarded as the two most important social problems at the close of 19th century and the early 20th century in China and both would be dealt with in this study. As observed in this paper, women could remarkably expand their domain of jobs as they heightened their educational levels. Yet, the percentage of working women was still low. It was 1-9% varying from region to region. Furthermore, many jobs, were limited to non-married women except for such professions as doctors and professors. In fact, the vast majority of the working women were unskilled laborer of so-called secondary labour markets and most of the rest served as maids. And, even these laborers and maids often resorted to becoming prostitutes. Because of the narrow labour market and the lack of business even for educated women, women were not passionate about getting their professions. Office girls were called 'flower vases', and women who married men of high social standing by taking advantage of their certificates of graduation from universities were called 'empress of college'. Likewise, the status of working women in early 20th century China was still in its 'infancy level' according to an intellectual at those time. Despite such limitation, however, women did improve their social status at home and in society through their increased economic activities. Those married working women came to have more voice In society, and unmarried working women got more autonomy in marriage and other matters. The advent and growth of the working women brought about a change in ideology then. Even though the majority of Chinese failed to break from the convention, I assert that sprouts of change have always been started from minority!