朝鮮時代 17世紀 木幀 硏究

高芽羅 동국대학교 교육대학원 2008 국내석사

The present study examined the current state and iconic and style characteristics of wooden wall paintings created in Gyeongsangbuk-do during the 17th century in the Chosun Dynasty focused on the wooden wall painting in the Daewoong Hall of the Daeseung Temple in Mungyeong, and that in the the Daejang Hall of the Yongmun-sa Temple in Yecheon. A wooden wall painting is a wooden relief in the form of a background painting. There are six known wooden wall paintings from the Chosun Dynasty, and among them, those with the date of creation confirmed are the wooden wall painting at the Daeseung Temple in Mungyeong, that at the Yongmun-sa Temple in Yecheon, that in the Gwaneum Hall of the Namjang-sa Temple in Sangju, that in Yaksu-am of the Silsang-sa Temple in Namwon, etc., and those with the date of creation unknown are the wooden wall painting in the Bogwang Hall of the Namjang-sa Temple in Sangju, that at the Gyeongguk-sa Temple in Seoul, that at the Mireuk-sa Temple in Wanju, etc. In particular, the works with the date of creation known are very important because they can be used as bases for setting the chronological order of Buddhist sculptures during the late Chosun Dynasty, and it is very remarkable that most of them were all created during the late Chosun Dynasty. During the Chosun Dynasty, Buddhism was depressed due to the government's policy of suppressing Buddhism, but because the dynasty was born of the Koryo Dynasty that embraced Buddhism as the national religion, it still maintained Buddhism and continued to create Buddhist images steadily. Particularly after the two great wars, one with Japan and the other with Manchu, in which patriotic monks displayed dazzling activities for rescuing the country, numerous Buddhist paintings and statues were created. Nevertheless, research on Buddhist sculptures has been mainly focused on the Period of the Three Kingdoms, the Unified Shilla Dynasty and the Koryo Dynasty, and Buddhist sculptures created in the Chosun Dynasty have been relatively less spotlighted and only recently schools and artists in the period are being studied and discussed actively. Wooden wall paintings function as background paintings, but they are important objects that should be included in discussion on Buddhist sculpture activities during the late Chosun Dynasty. A wooden wall painting is composed of a number of wood blocks, and in terms of its enshrined position and composition, it has the characteristic of a background painting. On the other hand, each image expressed in a wooden wall painting is an independent sculpture image and therefore it is possible to examine the icon of each image separately. In particular, all the extant wooden wall paintings have Amitabha as their main Buddha and this proves that worship to Amitabha was popular throughout the late Chosun Dynasty. Wooden wall paintings play the role of a background painting, but are different from other background paintings in that their material is wood rather than paper or linen. Wooden wall paintings from the late Chosun Dynasty took the form of a frame that surrounded a number of carved wood blocks and were used as background paintings. For this reason, they have been called 'wooden wall sculpture' in previous studies. However, it is called 「……三尊後佛木幀(Samjonhubulmokjeong)……」 according to the record on the bottom of the wooden wall painting (1684) at the Yongmun-sa Temple, 「……實相寺諸佛□□□諸幀 (Silsangsajebul□□□jejeong)……」 on the wooden wall painting (1782) in Yaksu-am of the Silsang-sa Temple, and 「……木幀佛像甲戌造成 (Mokjeongbulsanggapsuljoseong)……」 according to 『天柱山北長寺蹟記 (Cheonjusanbukjangsajeokgi)』, a record on the wooden wall painting (1694) in the Gwaneum Hall of the Namjang-sa Temple in Sangju. Thus, this study calls them 'wooden wall painting' rather than 'wooden wall sculpture.'[각주 : It is unknown when ‘wooden wall sculpture’ was used for the first time, but the term is used until now because its meaning is not much different. However, relevant records are believed the most accurate leads to the original meanings of Buddhist works, and it is considered most reasonable to call wooden wall paintings based on records about them. Thus, because ‘Mokgakjeong(木刻幀)’ has been used in the past for the sake of convenience, we will use ‘Mokjeong(木幀)’ according relevant records. We may also need to reconsider the fact that many terms related to the history of arts were coined for convenience by previous researches and they cause great confusion among us.] The present researcher took interest in the wooden wall paintings because they were all created during the late Chosun Dynasty and all the extant wooden wall painting from the Chosun Dynasty are background paintings with Amitabha as the main Buddha. Thus, this study purposed to examine the current state of the extant wooden wall paintings, and analyzed their contents and religious characteristics focused on their titles, date of creation and expression techniques, and the background of how wooden wall paintings adopted Amitabha as their main figure. For this purpose, we selected four wooden wall paintings superior in the composition of icons and formative beauty and showing the contrast of icon and style among wooden wall paintings from the 17th century, which are the wooden wall painting at the Daeseung Temple in Mungyeong, that at the Yongmun-sa Temple in Yecheon, that in the Bogwang Hall of the Namjang-sa Temple in Sangju, and that in the Gwaneum Hall of the Namjang-sa Temple, and analyzed them closely. First, Chapter II reviewed the trend of Buddhism and the popularity of Amitabha worship in the late Chosun Dynasty as the background of wooden wall paintings created during the period, and based on the background, Chapter III studied the current state of wooden wall paintings from the 17th century and analyzed their sculptural and Buddhist elements. In addition, Chapter IV compared icons in the wooden wall paintings with those in Buddhist statues and Buddhist paintings from the 17th century, and discussed the characteristics of their style. Chapter V considered the meanings of the 17th-century wooden wall paintings in the history of Buddhist art.

朝鮮前期 譯官硏究

백옥경 梨花女子大學校 2000 국내박사

朝鮮時代 譯官은 대외 관계에서 通譯을 비롯하여 각종 外交 實務를 담당했던 技術官員이다. 역관은 외국 사신 및 수행원 영접·使行 隨行 등을 통해 외국인과의 실제 접촉은 물론 정보활동까지 수행하였고, 經濟·文化的으로는 公貿易을 담당하고 先進 文物 導入의 통로 역할을 하였다. 역관에 대한 기존 연구는 주로 朝鮮時代 中人과 관련된 身分 硏究의 일환으로 진행되어 왔다. 역관이 上級 技術官員으로서 양반에 못지 않은 知識과 經濟的 實力을 축적하였음에도 불구하고 항상 사회적 差別待遇를 받으며 技術職 中人으로 고정되었다고 여겨졌던 것이다. 그리고 역관이 이를 극복하기 위한 움직임으로서의 정치·경제·문화 활동에 대해 주목해 왔다. 그러나 이제까지는 역관을 연구하는 목적이 사회 신분제도 규명에 모아진 결과, 정작 역관 자체에는 별다른 관심이 기울여지지 않았다. 그리고 시기적으로도 朝鮮 後期에 연구가 집중되어 있어서, 역관에 대한 전체적인 歷史像을 그려낼 수 없었다. 특히 譯科榜目이나 完薦記, 譯官 家門 연구를 통해 職役의 세습 경향을 밝히고, 이를 근거로 身分의 固着化 혹은 신분의 閉鎖性을 주장하는 것은, 통계 해석에 恣意性이 있으며 세습의 기준 설정이 모호하여 문제를 안고 있었다. 본 연구는 이러한 한계를 인식하고, 朝鮮 前期 譯官을 연구 대상으로 하였다. 우선은 역관 이해를 위한 기초적인 작업으로서, 조선 전기의 역관에 대해 客觀的이고 綜合的인 고찰을 시도하였다. 역관에 관련된 제도의 변화는 물론, 조선 전기 약 100여년간 활동한 역관의 官職과 활동내용 등을 분석하였다. 이를 통해 역관직의 구조, 역관의 선발·임기·관직 진출, 활동 내용 등을 상세하게 밝히고자 하였다. 두 번째로는 위의 결과를 토대로 조선 전기 사회에서 譯官의 性格과 位相은 어떠하였는가 하는 점을 규명하고자 하였다. 이것은 國家 統治 體制 하에서의 譯官 업무의 특성과 그 世傳性 여부, 역관에 대한 差別 여부를 고찰하는 작업으로 구체화되었다. 본 연구는 譯官이 中人身分으로 존재했는지 여부를 판단하기 위한 것으로서, 역관 더 나아가 중인 이해에 기여하고자 하였다. 조선 전기 역관은 高麗末 朝鮮初를 거치면서 기술관으로서의 位相을 확보하였다. 고려말 조선초 對外關係의 多元化와 明의 留學生 파견 금지 조치는 譯官 養成의 필요성을 증대시켰다. 뿐만 아니라 국내적으로도 富國强兵을 추진하는 가운데, 明의 선진 기술을 도입해오기 위해서는 역관의 활동이 요구되는 상황이었다. 따라서 조선 건국 직후부터 역대 국왕은 역관 양성에 깊은 관심을 표명하였다. 그 결과 역관을 문무 관료체계 속에 編制하는 한편, 역관의 업무를 담당하는 행정 관서의 설립이 시행되었다. 역관의 敎育과 選拔 제도가 성립되었고, 역관의 전문성 강화를 위한 다양한 정책이 실시되기도 하였다. 조선 시대 역관은 司譯院 官職과 軍職에 진출할 수 있었던 中央 譯官, 지방에서 직접적인 對外 交涉을 수행했던 外任 譯官이 있었고, 그 외 鄕通事라는 이름의 지방 通譯人도 있었다. 이들은 上下의 연결 구조 속에서 국가의 대외관계 업무를 수행해 나갔던 것으로 여겨진다. 역관의 충원대상은 良家子弟 혹은 鄕校生徒, 鄕吏 三丁一子, 鄕吏, 庶孼, 歸化人이었다. 일부 文武 官僚 및 그 子弟들이 국가의 역학 장려정책에 따라 習讀官이나 講隸官으로 진출한 예는 있으나, 실제 역관으로 활동하지는 않았다. 역관은 일반적으로 生徒로 入屬한 뒤 譯科 혹은 取才를 통해 관직에 진출하였다. 역과나 취재는 능력 위주의 선발 방식으로서, 역관의 자질 함양에 기여하였다. 역관은 司譯院 官職과 軍職에 진출할 수 있었다. 사역원 관직은 세종대 遞兒職으로 정비되면서 6개월마다 교체 제수되어야 하고, 最高位가 정3품으로 한정되어 그 이상의 진출이 사실상 제한되어 있었다. 뿐만이 아니라 역관에게는 일반 문신과는 다른 人事規定이 적용되고 있었다. 역관은 仍任制로 인해 역관으로서의 職任을 벗어날 수 없었고, 取才 성적에 의해 관직의 陞黜이 좌우되었다. 이러한 인사규정은 업무의 지속성과 전문성을 확보하기 위한 조치이기는 하였다. 그러나, 만약 취재에서 좋은 성적을 거두지 못하면 勤務年限이 아무리 오래되어도 승진하지 못하고 祿俸도 받지 못한 채 역관의 업에 종사하도록 강제되었다. 역관의 활동은 매우 다양하였는데, 특히 外交 부문에서의 활동이 두드러지게 나타난다. 사신 영접과 使行 隨行 등을 통해 직접적인 外交 實務를 담당하면서, 일부 역관은 외교관으로서의 뛰어난 업적을 이루기도 하였다. 그러나, 또 한편으로는 상대국에 국가의 기밀을 누설하는 등 逆機能의 모습을 보이기도 하였다. 반면, 조선 초기 역관의 정치·경제·문화 활동은 크게 부각되지 않는다. 개인적으로는 지위 상승 욕구를 표출하거나, 문화적 욕구를 가지고 있었다고 할지라도, 이것이 集團的 수준에서 표현되지 못하는 한계를 가지고 있었기 때문이다. 경제적으로도 권세가나 富商大賈의 대리 무역 수준이었고, 獨自的인 무역은 큰 비중을 차지하지 못하였다. 그러나 점차 집단적인 상언의 형태로 처우 개선을 요구하거나, 선진 기술 수용에도 적극적이고 유교적인 소양을 갖춘 역관들이 文人과 교류하는 등 의미있는 변화가 나타나기도 하였다. 조선전기 사회에서 이러한 역관의 性格과 位相은 역관이 담당하고 있는 업무의 특성, 역관에 대한 差別의 實在 與否, 역관 職役의 世傳 與否를 기준으로 고찰될 수 있다. 역관의 주업무인 통역은 쌍방의 의사 소통에 도움을 주는 수단이었다. 따라서 사실상 외교 정책의 수립이나 결정과는 거리가 있는 것이었고, 기능적인 역할에 국한되는 면이 있다. 즉, 역관의 업무는 외교관계에서 보조적인 위치를 차지하는 것이었다고 하겠다. 이러한 역관에 대해서는 사회적·제도적 차별이 가해지고 있었다. 사회적으로는 역관을 일반 문무 관료와는 구별하고 천시하는 의식이 존재하였고, 제도적으로는 人事規定의 차별적 적용, 堂上官으로의 진출 제한 등이 가해지고 있었던 것이다. 그러나 고려시대에도 역시 차별이 존재하였다는 사실에 의거해 볼 때, 이러한 차별의 연원은 조선 시대 이전으로 소급될 수 있었다. 그리고 譯官 職役은 일반 민이 대행할 수 없는 전문 지식과 기능의 숙달을 요하기 때문에 世傳의 경향이 강한 것은 사실이다. 그러나 父의 직역을 그 자손이 자동적으로 계승하도록 강제하는 조항을 명시하거나 시사해주는 사례는 찾아볼 수가 없었다. 오히려 시험을 통해 능력을 검증받은 자들을 임용하려 함으로써, 능력이 역관 진출에 결정적 척도가 됨을 볼 수가 있었다. 뿐만 아니라 역관의 후손이 아무런 장애 없이 문관으로 진출하여 활동하고 있는 것도, 세전이 이루어지지 않았던 증거로 들 수 있다. 결국, 조선 전기의 역관은 전문적인 기술관원으로서의 위상을 확보해가면서도, 상대적으로 특권에서 배제되거나 규제받으면서 하급 지배층으로 존재하였음을 알 수 있다. 이들은 하급 관료로서 상급 지배층을 보조하면서 지배층의 일원으로서 체제유지에 기여하기도 하였다. 이들은 職役의 專門性 때문에 世傳의 경향이 강하였지만, 또한 능력 위주의 충원 방법과 다른 직역으로의 이동 가능성에 의해 고정된 신분으로 존재한 것은 아니었다. 적어도 조선 전기의 경우, 職役을 곧 신분으로 置換해서 이해할 수 없다는 것을 의미한다. Translators in the early Chosun Dynasty were techno-officers who had worked for translating and diplomacy. They had contacts with foreigners and collected the information during their meeting, played an important role as the pipeline of public trading and introducing the advanced foreign culture. The exiting studies of translators were mainly focused on the class which was relating to the middle class of Chosun Dynasty. It was studied that Translators were always discriminated by a techno-officers with the ruling class who were called as Yangban socially, though they had knowledge and fortune no more than the ruling group did. The studies had been paid attention to the politic, economic and cultural activities which they had tried to overcome this discrimination. But until now the studies have been made of the system of social class, hadnt paid an attention to the role and activities of translators. And there is no big picture on the translator because they have been studied mainly about the later of Chosun Dynasty. Specially studies which have been worked on transferring translator class with the items of test and the translator family, which have problems about the arbitrary meaning statistically and the vague criteria of transferring. Therefore I have studied translators in the early Chosun Dynasty ,with that limits. First of all, I tried to analyze the translators of that times in order to understand their profession objectively and on the whole. The analysis was done with 224 techno-officers and activities during about 100 years of early Chosun Dynasty as well as the change of system relating to translators. Then I tried to define their jobs, selecting method, their tenure, their process of nominating as a techno-officer, and their activities in details. Second, I tried to define the characteristic and status of translators in the early Chosun Dynasty on the base of their results. It was developed to consider their jobs, whether or not to transfer their profession, discriminating their status under the control of Chosun Dynasty which was a monarchy. This study tried to contribute to decide what kinds of class translators was and to understand the middle class as a translator. Translators of the earlier Chosun Dynasty had earned their status as a techno-officer from the later Koryeo Dynasty to the early Chosun Dynasty. During those times, the Dynasty had had the multi-relationship with nearby countries and banned students from going aboard for study to China which was called Myeong Dynasty . that policy made Chosun Dynasty train the translators. Moreover they needed translators in order to introduce the advanced technology of Myeong, because Chosun Dynasty had driven to become a wealthy country and to make a powerful army at those times. So the Chosun kings had tried to train translators immediately after founding his country. It was resulted that translators had been organized into the system of civil and military officials. In addition to, an administrative which took charge of jobs for translators was established. Then the system of education and selection was made, the various policies which the specialty of translators had been made an emphasis were enforced. There were different kinds of translators who had been a central officer to be able to get a civil jobs(Sayeokueon) and a military jobs, who had been a diplomat taking charge of foreign relationships, who had been a local officer taking charge of simple translation. They had been controlled under the government. The qualifications for recruiting as a translator was given to a son of Yangban class, student of Hyangkeo, Hyangri who was a local lower officer, a child born of concubine and a naturalized person. Some son of the ruling group who had been called Yangban also became a academic researcher who had been called Sbdokkdan or Kangyeokoan. But they didnt worked for translators. Generally translators entered to the institute as a student and became a officer through test which was called Yaokka or Chuijai. That kinds of testing method, which selected person with his ability was contributed to improve the quality of translator. Translator had been able to become an officer of Sayeokueon and to get a military jobs. The position in his job should be changed in every 6 months with setting job as a Hoagik in Seoisongs and he would have a limit of promotion to the Jeong Sam Pum even if he had been promoted into the highest positions. Besides there were the other regulation which was governed to translators different from general officers. They should take charge of translation. They didnt have the freedom of changing their job under the control of Naimje, positions were influenced by their results of test which were called Chuijai. It was the reason that rules of personnel management were means to get the professional specialty and consistence. But if anyone hadnt gotten a good credit, even though he had worked for a long time, he couldnt have been promoted and forced to work for job without his salary. Their activities were very various, among them diplomatic activities were outstanding. Some of them greeted with foreign representatives directly and performed an excellent contribution as a diplomat. on the other side, they had also done bad activities revealing the top secret of country. But in the early Chosun Dynasty, there were a few activities which translators had made on the politic, economic and cultural field. Even if they had waned to raise their status or to express their thought, there were no freedom to express their needs within the group of class. In the economic side, they had little economic importance with their trading activities because people with power or the rich and large merchant mainly played the important role in the agent trade. But gradually meaningful changes happened which they wanted to improve their status with the same group of them, received the advanced technology aggressively, came in contact with Yangban class. The characteristics and status of translators in the earlier Chosun Dynasty could be considered as criteria whether or not to be the discrimination of them, whether or not to transfer the status of them. Translating had been the key role of them and means to communicate with foreigners. Their role was limited to only the functional thing different from decision-making in diplomacy. That is, their job was an assistant in diplomatic relationship. Those days there were atmosphere to discriminate against translators and despise them socially, unfair treatment not to go into Dangsangkoan and the discrimination in personnel management. When we find also discrimination in the Koryeo Dynasty , so I can believe that this custom could be before Chosun Dynasty. The job of translators should have been transferred to require specific knowledge and master of their function. But there were no evidence to be able to find out regulations which their jobs was transferred from father to son automatically. On the contrary we can find that ability was measures to go into the officer of translators when competent people being appointed with test. Moreover when descendent of translators could enter into Mungoan without obstacle, it is evidence not to transfer their jobs Finally I can find translators of those days were the lower ruling class, gaining their status as professional techno-officer and receiving unfair treatment. They played the role of supporting the higher ruling class and contributed to maintain the system of Chosun Dynasty. Though they were likely to transfer their jobs with their professional specialty, their status wasnt fixed after we found evidences to recruit people with competence and to be able to move into the other jobs and status. At least, in earlier Chosun Dynasty, I conclude that translator couldnt be replaced by status

조선시대 ? 청대 궁중 여성 복식 문양의 조형요소 비교 연구 : 관혼상제 복식을 중심으로

장진강 조선대학교 대학원 2022 국내박사

Korea and China are geographically connected neighbors, and the two countries have been active in political, economic and cultural exchanges since ancient times. Historically, the two countries shared the same cultural circle of "Chinese characters". Therefore, there are close links in many ways. Mutual influence, common development, both common and different cultural characteristics. The chosun dynasty was the last feudal dynasty in Korea, and China was under the Ming Dynasty from the beginning. The two dynasties had very close contacts from the very beginning. Influenced by the Ming Dynasty, the chosun Dynasty ruled by Confucianism. In terms of economy and culture, the two dynasties were also closely linked. In particular, the cultural influence of the Korean royal family was very great. In terms of clothing, it formed a feature similar to that of the Ming Dynasty, which was wide robe with large sleeves under the jacket. In China, the Qing dynasty was the last feudal dynasty. From the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China, many reforms were carried out. In terms of political system, Confucianism was also adopted. As the Qing dynasty was established by the manchu ethnic minority, it retained the national customs and combined with the Han cultural system of the Ming Dynasty, forming the characteristics of the Qing royal family's body-hugging narrow sleeve robe in costume. Both dynasties were influenced by the Ming Dynasty in their costumes, but they also formed their own unique styles with national characteristics. The dress styles that best represent the two dynasties are those of the royal family. The application of the fabric, craft, pattern and color of the dress represents the highest level of the two dynasties at that time. Especially the various types of royal women's clothing, such as the royal women's clothing in the chosun Dynasty, Zhai Yi, lou Yi, Chang sang, Yuan Sang, Tang Yi; The imperial women's clothing of the Qing Dynasty, such as court dress, dragon robe, ordinary dress and casual dress, showed the most gorgeous beauty of costume aesthetics at that time, and had a profound influence on the costume culture of the later generations. On the basis of such historical background, around one of the royal women dress features of decoration pattern as the research center, refer to the literature, the two countries from the pattern process modelling, the kinds of fabric, color characteristics, organization form and yili crown marriage funeral offering five aspects of thinking, the Chosun Dynasty and the Qing Dynasty royal women patterns for comparative analysis, the analysis of the results are as follows: The types of royal female clothing patterns in the Chosun Dynasty and Qing Dynasty include plant patterns, animal patterns, auspicious character patterns and other patterns with implied meanings. The types of patterns are rich, and the contents of different types of patterns have symbolic meanings. In modeling, both dynasties were influenced by Confucianism, and respected the natural laws in the expression of patterns, which were expressed in costumes with realistic modeling styles. The pattern modeling of the Korean era is characterized by simple and simple lines, and the pursuit of the beauty of harmony and rhythm. The pattern of Qing Dynasty is characterized by complex lines, rich levels of modeling, and the pursuit of full and magnificent beauty. There are similarities and differences in the patterns of the two dynasties. This fully shows that due to the different cultural customs and aesthetic pursuit, the shape characteristics of the pattern has also had an impact. In the fabric technology, the fabric of the royal women's clothing in the two dynasties are based on precious silk. Among them, there are four kinds of silk fabrics, such as satin, yarn, brocade and chou which represent the main clothing of women of the chosun royal family. The representative fabrics of Qing imperial women's main clothes are silk, satin, yarn and brocade. In terms of the pattern of fabric, it was mainly woven by dark brocade jacquard, weaving gold and gold foil. But many of the royal family's most expensive fabrics were purchased from China, where weaving technology was so advanced. The weaving of patterns in the Qing Dynasty was mainly based on the weaving of gold, makeup and kesi techniques of "Yun Brocade", among which yun brocade was designated as the royal tribute in the palace, representing the highest level of weaving technology. In addition to the techniques of weaving patterns, the two dynasties also had typical embroidery techniques, which were very rich and even reached dozens of kinds. Korean times in the fabric pattern performance, Prefer recessive dark patterns, pattern to simple, dignified and elegant. Embroidery craft as a whole lively needlework, simple and simple patterns, simple and steady color. The Qing Dynasty's fabric patterns were characterized by fine weaving, exquisite patterns, gorgeous brocade patterns and luxurious and elegant styles. The embroidery process had a unique style of full shape, meticulous embroidery, lively needlework and bright colors. In terms of color, both the Chosun Dynasty and the Qing Dynasty carried out color matching based on the theory of Yin-yang and five elements. Combined with their own folk customs and the needs of the ruling class, formed their own unique color style. The pursuit of bright and simple beauty in The Korean era reflects the pursuit of natural harmony, forming the Korean nation's preference for simple and elegant colors. The color characteristic of royal female dress pattern is simple and elegant, gorgeous. The Qing Dynasty pursued bright colors, beautiful colors and strong contrast. The royal women's dress patterns are characterized by various and delicate colors, harmonious and natural colors, gorgeous and rich. In the form of organization, the patterns of the Chosun Dynasty and Qing Dynasty consist of separate patterns, suitable patterns, continuous patterns and corner patterns. The organization form of corner pattern is peculiar to Qing Dynasty. The clothing patterns of the two dynasties were mainly distributed in the shoulder, cuff, chest, back, collar around and hem for decoration. The two dynasties have the composition characteristics of living Chinese style, symmetrical style and full floor style in the organization form of individual patterns. The two dynasties were very different in the form of organization suitable for the pattern, that is, the framework of the outline. In the Chosun Dynasty, there was a square outline and no center in the composition of the pattern, which was distributed in the costume in a parallel way, up, down, left and right. The Qing Dynasty was dominated by the shape of a group, and different forms of composition were used to decorate the clothes around the central pattern of the group. Both dynasties had two continuous and four continuous arrangement patterns in the organization form of continuous patterns. In the two-sided continuous organization, the pattern composition of the chosun Dynasty has vertical and scattered forms. The decorative patterns of the Qing Dynasty were vertical, corrugated and scattered. In the continuous organization form of four sides, the types of decorative patterns in the Korean era are more than those in the Qing Dynasty, and the composition forms are connected type and scattered type. The overall composition space of the patterns is relatively dense. The decorative patterns of the Qing Dynasty are rich and gorgeous in color, and the composition forms are interlocking, overlapping and scattered. In the overall composition of patterns, dark patterns and bright patterns are arranged in an orderly or disordered way. Crown marriage and funeral sacrifice is the system, rules and a social consciousness in ancient rites of concrete expression. It is of great significance to the governance and regulation of the whole society. Dress is a form of ceremonial ceremony to show the image of beauty and status of a form. The two cultures were compared in order to comprehensively grasp the cultural value and aesthetic characteristics of the formation and development of the royal women's dress patterns through the official wedding ceremonies of the two dynasties. The result indicated that the pattern not only simply revealed the external beauty of the image, but also performed for the political life of the ruling class, but also serves for the political life of the ruling class. In the ceremony activities of coronation and funeral sacrifice, there are specific requirements of coronation and funeral sacrifice system for the wearing of clothes, but the characteristics of patterns are not completely changed by the ceremony of coronation and funeral sacrifice, but are decorated by the positioning and display level of the clothing itself. The implied meaning of the pattern itself can better reflect the multiple roles of clothing in the ritual, which well meets the cultural aesthetic needs of the ruling class and the authority of the ruling position. Based on the above research results. This paper is of great significance to the study of the comparison of royal female clothing patterns in the Chosun Dynasty and the Qing Dynasty through the comparative analysis of the types and shapes of patterns, fabric technology, color characteristics, organizational forms and other ways. Not only did the author deeply understand the similarities and differences between the royal women's clothing patterns of the two dynasties from an all-round and multi-perspective, but also from the perspective of "rites", the author deeply understood the role of the patterns in the society and the cultural connotation and aesthetic characteristics formed from the ceremony of crown marriage, funeral and sacrifice. It is hoped that this thesis will contribute to the future research and design application of clothing culture in the two countries. It was suggested that in-depth research should be conducted in detail in the future. It is also expected to supplement the limited resources and data collection of this study to expand the scope of the study of costume not only to the royal family but also to society as a whole in relation to the culture of costume in both countries. 한국과 중국은 지리적으로 인접한 이웃으로 예나 지금이나 정치·경제·문화적 교류가 매우 활발하다. 역사적으로 두 나라는 같은 '한자(漢字)' 문화권에 있어 여러 방면에서 긴밀한 관계를 맺고 있어 상호 영향을 주고받으며 함께 발전하는 과정에 공통성도 있지만 서로 문화적 특징도 있다. 조선왕조는 한국의 마지막 봉건왕조로 건국 초기는 중국의 명(明)왕조 시기로서 두 왕조는 처음부터 교류가 매우 긴밀했다. 명왕조의 영향으로 조선왕조는 유교를 나라의 정체(政體)로 삼았다. 경제와 문화적으로도 두 왕조는 밀접한 관계를 맺고 있었는데, 특히 조선 왕실 문화에 영향이 매우 커 복식 분야는 명대와 비슷한 상의하상(上衣下裳)인 넓은 포와 큰 소매가 특징이다. 중국의 청왕조는 마지막 봉건왕조로 건국 초기부터 많은 개혁을 진행했으며 정체는 유교 사상을 국가이념으로 채택했다. 청 왕조는 소수 민족인 만주족이 세운 나라여서 자체 민족풍습은 그대로 유지하면서도 명대의 한(漢)문화 체제를 결합해 복식 분야는 타이트하고 좁은 소매와 긴 포(袍)를 갖는 특징이 있다. 두 왕조 모두 복식 방면에서 명대의 영향을 어느 정도 받았으나, 나름대로 민족적 특색을 지닌 독창적인 스타일을 형성하였다. 두 왕조의 복식 스타일을 가장 잘 대표할 수 있는 건 궁중의 복식이다. 복식의 직물·공예·문양·색채 등의 활용은 두 왕조 당시의 최고 수준을 대표한다. 특히 왕(황)실의 여성 복식은 종류가 다양했는데 조선시대 왕실 여성의 복식은 적의(翟衣)·노의(露衣)·장삼(长衫)·원삼(圆衫)·당의(唐衣)가 있었고, 청대 황실의 여성 복식은 조복(朝服)·용포(龙袍)·상복(常服)·편복(便服) 등은 당시 복식의 가장 화려했던 미적(美的) 감각을 잘 보여주며 후세의 복식문화에 큰 영향을 미쳤다. 이러한 역사적 배경을 바탕으로 황실의 여성 복식 특징 중 하나인 장식 문양을 중심으로 양국의 문헌 자료를 참고하여 문양의 종류별 조형, 직물공예, 색채특징, 조직 형태와 의례인 관혼상제 등 다섯 가지 측면에서 조선시대와 청대의 여성 복식 문양을 비교·분석한 결과는 다음과 같다. 조선시대와 청대의 궁중 여성 복식 문양의 종류에는 모두 식물문·동물문·길상문자문과 기타 특징을 지닌 문양이 있었으며, 문양의 종류가 다양하고 종류별 문양의 내용에 따라 상징적인 의미가 있다. 두 왕조는 모두 유교 사상의 영향을 받아 문양의 조형 표현에 있어서 자연법칙을 존중했고 사실적인 조형 스타일로 복식에 많이 표현되었다. 조선시대 문양 조형의 특징은 소박하고 간결한 조형 라인으로 조화로운 운율을 추구한 것이 특징이다. 청대 문양의 조형 특징은 라인이 복잡하게 표현되고 층이 풍부하며 웅장하고 화려한 아름다움을 추구하였다. 두 왕조의 문양의 조형적 특징은 유사점도 있지만 각기 다른 문화적 미적 특징도 보인다. 이는 문화와 풍습, 미적 추구가 달라서 문양의 조형적 특징에도 다른 영향을 미쳤음을 잘 보여준다. 직물의 공예에서 두 왕조의 궁중 여성 복식의 직물은 모두 진귀한 실크가 주류를 이뤘다. 그중에서 조선 왕실 여성의 주요 복식을 대표하는 직물은 단(缎)·사(纱)·금(锦)·주(紬) 네 가지 견직물이다. 청대 황실 여성의 주요 복식에 사용한 직물은 주(绸)·단(缎)·사(纱)·금(锦) 네 가지 대표적인 견직물이 있다. 직물의 문양 표현에 있어 조선시대는 주로 금단암문(锦缎暗纹) 자카드, 직금(织金), 금박(金箔) 등의 기법으로 문양을 직조했다. 하지만 왕실의 귀중한 직물은 중국에서 많이 수입했는데 그 당시 중국의 직조기술이 매우 앞섰기 때문이다. 청대 문양의 직조는 '운금(云锦)'의 직금(织金)·장화(妆花) 및 격사(缂丝)기법이 주를 이루었고, 그중에서 운금은 궁중 어용 공물로 지정되었으며 직조기술의 최고 수준을 대표했다. 두 왕조는 직조문양의 공예기술 외에도 몇십 가지에 달하는 다양한 자수 기법이 있다. 조선시대에는 직물 문양 표현에 있어서 암화문(暗花紋) 직물을 선호하였는데, 문양이 간결하고 장중하면서 단아한 것이 주를 이뤘다. 자수공예는 전체적으로 침법이 활발하며 문양이 소박하고 단순하며 색채가 차분하다. 청대는 직물 문양의 표현에서 직조가 정교하고 문양이 아름다우며, 금문(锦纹)이 화려하고 고급스러운 스타일이 특징이며, 자수공예는 조형이 풍성하고 기법이 섬세하며 침법이 활발하고 색채가 화려한 독특한 스타일을 가지고 있다. 색채 방면에서 조선시대와 청대 모두 음양오행설 사상을 바탕으로 색채를 배색했다. 또 각자의 민속과 지배계층의 수요를 결합하여 각각의 독특한 색채 스타일을 형성하였다. 조선시대에는 밝고 소박한 아름다움을 추구하고 자연의 조화로움에 대한 추구가 나타나면서 한(韓)민족이 단아한 소색(素色)을 선호하는 독특한 경향이 형성되었다. 왕실 여성 복식 문양의 색채는 소박하고 우아하며 화려한 것이 특징이다. 청대는 컬러풀하고 화사한 색상과 강한 대비를 추구하는 경향이 있었다. 황실 여성 복식 문양의 색채는 다양하고 섬세하며, 훈색(暈色)이 조화롭고 자연스러우며 화려하고 아름다운 것이 특징이다. 조직 형태 방면에서 조선시대와 청대의 문양의 조직 형태는 단독문양·적합문양·연속문양·변각(邊角)문양의 조직형태로 구성되었다. 변각문양의 조직 형태는 청대에만 있고 조선시대에는 없었다. 두 왕조의 복식문양 배치는 다양한 구도로 직물에 분포되어 있으며 어깨, 소매, 앞가슴, 등, 옷깃 주변 및 밑단 등에 중점적으로 문양을 장식했다. 두 왕조는 모두 단독문양의 조직 형태에서 거중식·대칭식·만지식의 구도적 특징을 가지고 있다. 두 왕조는 적합문양의 조직 형태에서 매우 큰 차이를 보였는데 바로 윤곽의 틀이다. 조선시대에는 방형(方形) 윤곽으로 문양의 구도형식은 중심이 없이 평행하게 상하좌우로 복식에 분산되어 장식했다. 청대에는 단형(團形)의 윤곽을 위주로 하여 단형의 중심 문양을 둘러싸고 다양한 형태의 구도를 구사하여 복식에 장식했다. 두 왕조의 연속문양 조직 형태에는 이방연속과 사방연속 배열형식이 있다. 이방연속 조직형태에서 조선시대의 문양 구도형식은 수직식(垂直式)과 산점식(散点式)이 있고, 청대 장식 문양 구도형식에는 수직식·파문식(波紋式)·산점식이 있었다. 사방연속의 조직형태는 조선시대의 장식문양 종류가 청대보다 많았으며, 구도형식으로는 연철식(连缀式)과 산점식이 있어 문양의 전체적인 구도 공간이 밀집되어 있었다. 청대의 문양 장식은 색채가 풍부하고 화려하며, 구도형식은 연철식·중첩식·산점식이 있었다. 문양의 전체 구도에는 암문양과 명문양이 질서정연하거나 무질서하게 밀집되어 배열을 이뤘다. 관혼상제는 고대 의례 중 제도, 규칙과 사회의식 관념의 구체적인 표현 형식이다. 전체 사회의 지배와 통제에 대해 중요한 의의가 있으며 복식은 의례에서 형상의 아름다움과 신분적 지위를 나타내는 형식이다. 두 왕조의 관혼상제 의식을 통해 궁중 여성 복식 문양의 형성과 발전에 대한 문화적 가치와 미적 특징을 전반적으로 파악할 수 있게 두 문화를 비교하였다. 그 결과 문양은 단순히 외적인 이미지의 아름다움을 드러낼 뿐만 아니라 지배계급의 정치 생활을 위해 행해졌다는 것을 알 수 있었다. 관혼상제의 의례 행사에서 복식의 착용은 모두 특정한 관복제도를 갖췄지만, 문양의 특징이 관혼상제의 의식에 따라 바뀌지 않고, 복식 자체가 가진 관복의 위치와 신분 계급을 나타내기 위해 구성되었다. 문양 자체가 갖는 의미는 의례에서 복식의 다양한 역할을 잘 나타내 지배층의 문화적 미적 욕구와 최상 지위의 권위성을 잘 충족시키도록 도안되고 제작되었다. 상기 연구 결과를 기반으로 연구는 문양의 종류별 조형, 직물 공예, 색채특징, 조직 형태 등 다양한 방식으로 비교분석을 수행하여 조선시대와 청대 황실의 여성 복식 문양을 비교하는데 큰 의의가 있다고 각각의 사회적, 문화적, 예술적 의미를 추론할 수 있었다. 두 왕조의 여성 복식 문양의 유사점과 차이점을 다각도로 고찰했을 뿐만 아니라 '예(禮)'의 시각으로 관혼상제의 의식을 통해 문양이 사회 속에서 맡은 역할과 형성된 문화적 의미, 심미적 특징을 도출하였다. 이 논문이 향후 양국 복식문화에 대한 연구와 디자인 활용에 조금이나마 기여할 수 있기를 바라며 향후 세부 분야별 심층 연구가 이루어져야 함을 시 사점으로 제시하였다. 또한, 본 연구의 제한된 자원과 자료수집을 보완하여 두 나라의 복식문화와 관련하여 왕실에 그치지 않고 사회 전반에 걸친 복식 연구로 범위의 확장을 기대해본다.

高麗·朝鮮의 遣明使 硏究

박성주 東國大學校 2005 국내박사

Kyǒn-Ming-Sa(遣明使) means an envoy or an embassy dispatched to Ming(明) dynasty from Koryǒ and Chosun dynasty. The purpose of this study is to systematize on all embassy dispatched to Ming during the period of Koryǒ and Chosun dynasty. This investigation establishment times is from eighteen years(1369, A.D) of King Kongmin((恭愍王) to fourteen years(1636, A.D) of King Injo(仁祖). Traditionally, Korea and China was built up to close diplomatic relations in the various fields of politics, economics, culture, military affairs, etc. Specially, Relations of Koryǒ and Chosun-Ming dynasty was more closed than Sino-Korea relations of being previous. But diplomatic pending issue between the two countries has been in large numbers. A trouble-solving brokers of these diplomatic pending issue was Kyǒn-Ming-Sa. Because Ming dynasty was toke the stand to a closed diplomatic policy decision, only an embassy has a right of way. Namely, in the Ming periods, all private contacts and trade were prohibited. Therefore, Koryǒ and Chosun dynasty accepted the trimming policy. Because pursuing to establish the diplomatic relation and the home political stability, Koryǒ and Chosun dynasty accepted to the trimming policy of Ming. As are a result of trimming policy, namely, Koryǒ and Chosun dynasty dispatched the tributary embassy to Ming dynasty. We can classify Kyǒn-Ming-Sa into regular embassy and non-regular embassy. Regular embassies were Hajǒngsa(賀正使) and Sungjǒlsa(聖節使), Chunchusa(千秋使). Beside there were non-regular embassies as Saunsa(謝恩使), Juchǒngsa(奏請使), Jinhunsa(進獻使), kobusa(告訃使), Jinhasa(進賀使), etc. In consequence of dispatched Kyǒn-Ming-Sa steadily, Relations of Koryǒ and Chosun-Ming dynasty was more closed than Sino-Korea relations of being previous. As a result of this, both countries relation was built up to the official trade relation. therefore, both countries the economic trade and cultural exchange were more increasing. Such change of both countries relation was a vigorous studies by the preceding of the scholars. but the study for systematize on all embassy dispatched to Ming during the period of Koryǒ and Chosun dynasty has been rarely researched until now. Therefore, on the this study is systematized, at first, what is diplomatic pending issue of both countries relation, and Secondly, how it solving by Koryǒ and Chosun dynasty, Thirdly, what is undergo a change on the constitution and duties of a post of Kyǒn-Ming-Sa embassies, finally, comings and goings and characters, roles, activities of Kyǒn-Ming-Sa embassies. Chapter Ⅱ has the research of organization and development on the diplomatic relations of Koryǒ-Ming dynasty. Also on the diplomatic relations Chosun-Ming dynasty of 15th century has the research of what is diplomatic pending issue. Beside on the diplomatic relations Chosun-Ming dynasty of 16th century has the research of what is diplomatic pending issue. Consequently, Roles and activities of Kyǒn-Ming-Sa has the research of how greatly to the diplomatic relations Ming. Chapter Ⅲ has the research of procedure of dispatch preparation and select and appoint of Kyǒn-Ming-Sa. Consequently, Kyǒn-Ming-Sa embassies was changed on the constitution and duties of a post, in according with periods. Chapter Ⅳ has researched and analyzed in compared with deign to visit of Kyǒn-Ming-Sa embassies, at the close of Koryǒ, the fist days of Chosun, and the middle of Chosun, classifying kinds and periods of embassies. Consequently, such statistical analyses has researched of how is significances and characters. Chapter Ⅴ has researched to officially and unofficially roles and activities of Kyǒn-Ming-Sa embassies. Consequently, Kyǒn-Ming-Sa embassies was dispatched of 1,293 times. At first, Kyǒn-Ming-Sa embassies took an active in foreign trade Ming. Foreign trade only had been under official tribute. Thus, Kyǒn-Ming-Sa embassies exclusively responsible for these official trade. Secondly, Kyǒn-Ming-Sa introduced not only Ming's culture and institutions to Koryǒ and Chosun but also delivered Koryǒ and Chosun's cultures to Ming. Thirdly, Kyǒn-Ming-Sa was served as finding out by import military affairs and advance cultures of Ming.

朝鮮時代 三身佛會圖에 관한 硏究

황규성 동국대학교 대학원 2001 국내석사

The coming of Sakyamuni(釋迦牟尼) was an epoch-making event in the history of mankind. Since Sakyamuni has achieved complete truth, a good variety of views on Buddhas and Buddha- kayas have been unfolded through the entire Buddhist history. So great was his influence that his message and personality are still a living reality in the life of Buddhists. As all the views on Buddhas had no choice to be accompanied by Buddha-kaya theories, a spate of controversies were made and examined. First of all, referring to the Indian Buddhist history, we can find the plain views on Sakyamuni(釋迦牟尼) the Buddha of the Primitive Buddhism, and the other views of the Divided Buddhism consisting of Sthavira(上座部) and Mahasamghika(大衆部). While Sthavira(上座部) put much emphasis on historical figure of Buddhas, Mahasamghika(大衆部) greatly emphasized ideal aspects of Buddhas. Those opposed views on Buddhas brought Twofold-body Theory of Dharma-kaya(法身) and Nirmana-kaya(化身). To give a detailed explanation, Sakya Tathagata who has reached the very peak of transcendental wisdom is one of Nirmana-kayas(化身), whereas Maha Vairocana Tathagata is the very manifestation of the everlasting Dharma-kaya(法身) Buddha. Coming of the era of Mahayana Buddhism, the views on Buddhas became more diversified and enlarged. Especially the thoughts of Bodhisattva(菩薩), who has been a guide for mankind as well as tried to achieve the Ultimate Enlightenment, deepened the views on the reality of Buddha. Therefore, in the mid Mahayana Buddhism, the views on Buddha-kayas developed into Threefold-body Theory of Dharma-kaya(法身), Nirmana-kaya(化身) and Sambhoga-kaya(報身). Sambhoga-kaya(報身) is a third and compromised form of Buddha between Dharma-kaya, the ultimate truth of universal light, and Nirmana-kaya(化身), historial persons who have achieved Ultimate Enlightenment. Vairocana(毘盧遮那) as Dharma-kaya(法身) originated from the light of Universe in Zoroastrianism. He is the whole entity invisible but immanent and immortal. He is the very origin of Universe, controlling it with his power of illumination. So he is the supremacy among other Buddhas. Locana(盧舍那) as Sambhoga-kaya(報身), usually represented as a figure of Bodhisattva(菩薩) wearing luxurious robes and crown, is the one who has achieved ultimate reality through the practice of great spiritual perfections in numberless births during an incomprehensible length of time. Though invisible to ordinary men, he not only has searched for Ultimate Enlightenment of Vairocana but also is a way-finder, a guide for disciplined Buddhists who want to be free from the ills of the continuing migration through endless series of rebirths. Sakya Tathagata(釋迦佛) as Nirmana-kaya(化身) is a historical figure born to the world as Sidhartha Gotama in order to save mankind who can't see Locana(盧舍那) and Vairocana(毘盧遮那). He is the one of a number of Nirmana-kaya(化身) Buddhas who historically existed in India. Triratna(The Three Precious Ones) - Dharma, Sambha, and Buddha - has been developing its concept on the basis of Buddha's reality. It may be attributed to the sole Moon above sky, the moonbeams between the moon and water, and lots of reflected moons on the surface of water, and also reminds us of Christian Holy Trinity - the Father, the Son and the holy Spirit. Thus Threefold-body Theory of Buddhism, I believe, is very interesting topic to study in the field of compared philosophy of religions as well as in art history. After Threefold-body Theory were established in India, the issues of Christian Trinity were comprehended in the Great Council of Nicaea in 325AD. Buddhist Triratna shares its doctrine with Christian Trinity, and has shown many affiliated iconographies in art works. It is said that Christian philosophy has been developed by the influence of Buddhist precepts. Some scholars presume that Christian Bible was derived from Buddhist sutras. With this background, Threefold-body Theory of Buddhas suggests lots of interdisciplinary topic to examine between Buddhism and Christianity in the aspect of religion as well as artistic iconography. In Northern part of Asia such as China, Korea and Japan, all the views on Buddhas and Buddha-kayas of Indian Buddhism were prosperous with many schools or sects. It is uncertain that the thoughts of Threefold-body of Buddhas were represented into art works in India, but we find that Vairocana was embodied as supreme Buddha in Hua-wen Sect(華嚴宗) of Chinese Buddhism around the mid eighth century. Upon at least the late eighth or early ninth century, Chinese artisans started to make statues of Triratna. Figure 1 and 2 are those examples of Three Buddhas made in Ming Dynasty (明朝) of China. In Korea where Buddhism was introduced in 372 AD, it is remarkable that plenty of Triad of Buddhas have been made and worshiped, whereas not so many examples were in India and China. In Japan where Esoteric Buddhism was prosperous, they did not make any statues of Three Buddhas. Among diverse schools, Hua-wen Sect(華嚴宗) was most popular with Korean people, which was based on Avatamska Sutra and Vairocana(毘盧遮那). Following the teachings of Hua-wen Sect. they made a number of statues and images of Vairocana. Particularly we find many marvelous statues of Vairocana in the Unified Shilla(新羅) dynasty around the ninth century. It is not yet defined when the three Buddhas of Vairocana, Locana (盧舍那) and Sakya Tathagata(釋迦佛) started to be made in Korea. But we estimate that it was about the tenth century, for we have a historical record that tells Three Buddhas were enshrined in Changansa Temple(長安寺) of Keumgangsan Mountain(金剛山) in 982AD. In Chosun(朝鮮) dynasty(1392-1910) Koreans began to create paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas. The five assemblies of Buddhas(figure 7) now in Japan, is one of those oeuvres. Though Buddhism was suppressed by national ideological policy in Chosun dynasty, a number of paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas were produced with the doctrine of Hua-wen Sect(華嚴宗), which continued to prosper till late Chosun. Besides we have to pay attention to huge paintings of Locana, illustrating the stories of Brahmajala sutra(梵網經). Having the meaning of meshes of net, Brahmajala signifies to net or discipline ordinary people and their life. It suggests an ethic for them to be devoted for their family and country. The precept of Brahmajala sutra, though it is Buddhist, also coincide with the ideas of Confucianism, the ideology of Chosun(朝鮮) dynasty. Vairocana as The Light of Truth, accompanied ire his left and right by Locana and Sakya Tathagata in paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas, has usually been enshrined in the Hall of Light(大寂光殿, 大光明殿). Major temples of Korea such as Hwaumsa, Tongdosa(通度寺), Haeinsa(海印寺), have triptych of three assemblies of Buddhas in their main Hall of Light (大寂光殿, 大光明殿). The huge Buddhist paintings, typically developed in Korea and as large as ten or fifteen meters, usually presents the theme of three assemblies of Buddhas. Upon important Buddhist ceremonies, it was displayed in front of temple. With this style of painting we understand that people not only continued to support Buddhism economically but also kept their belief in Three Buddhas in spite of suppression in Chosun(朝鮮) dynasty. The paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas are classified into three different types according to their compositions. 1)The first type consists of three Buddha-kayas of Vairocana, Locana and Sakya Tathagata, while 2)the second shows three Buddhas dwelling in their three different Buddhist worlds - Sakya Tathagata(釋迦), Amitabha(阿彌陀) and Bhaisajyaguru(藥師佛) as well as the three Buddha-kayas of type I. 3)The third type presents just one of the three Buddha-kayas from type I. 1) Type I is representative form of the paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas, for it has all three Buddha-kayas of Vairocana(毘盧遮那), Locana(盧舍那) and Sakya Tathagata(釋迦). Again we may divide it into three detailed variations; a)Locana takes the figure of crowned Bodhisattva (figures 12∼19), b)Locana takes the figure of Buddha without crown(figures 20∼25), and c)Sakya Tathagata exceptionally takes the figure of crowned Bodhisattva, figure 26). Among these three variations, Locana as Buddha of item b) wears humble and modest robes even without luxurious crown, necklets or bracelets, which are typical attributes of Locana. 2) Type II shows double composition of three Buddha-kayas (Vairocana, Locana and Sakya Tathagata) and three Buddhas in three places(Sakya Tathagata, Amitabha and Bhaisajyaguru). It is said that Type II is the result from unifying two different Buddhist doctrines under the repression of Chosun dynasty. Avatamska Sutra of Hua-wen Sect takes Vairocana as supreme Buddha, while Sutra of Lotus portrays Sakyamuni as principal Enlightened one. As composed of five Buddhas of Vairocana(毘盧遮那), Locana(盧舍那), Sakya Tathagata(釋迦), Amitabha(阿彌陀) and Bhaisajyaguru(藥師佛), type II is usually represented with crossed or triangular compositions. We may categorize type II into two detailed ones; a) the one including all five Buddhas(figures 27∼31) and b) the other without some of them(figures 30, 32∼33). Type II may have its emphasis either on three Buddha-kayas or on Buddhas in each their three places. 3) In type III, only one of the three Buddha-kayas is illustrated according to religious requirements. It may represent a) Vairocana as Dharma-kaya(figures 34∼40), b) Locana as Sambhoga-kaya (figures 41∼47), or c) Sakya Tathagata as Nirmana-kaya(figures 48∼52). In the case of b) Locana and c) Sakya Tathagata, Vairocana appears in their crowns, symbolizing the fact that himself is the very root of Buddhist reality in the organic relationship with the other Buddha-kayas. Though they have similar face and body, the three Buddha-kayas mentioned above can be identified by their positions and gestures of hands. Vairocana of the center takes Bodhasri mudra(智拳印) putting two hands on his breast, which signifies ultimate truth, whereas Locana on the right demonstrates Vitarka mudra(說法印) opening two arms outward. On the left Sakyamuni rests his right hand on his knee pointing to the earth. It is the famous Bhumisparsa mudra(觸地印), which is the sign of announcing his triumph against Mara, the personification of evil. Vitarka mudra(說法印) of Locana changes from ∨-shape in Koryo(高麗) dynasty(figures 5∼9) to paralleled 11-shape in early Chosun(朝鮮) dynasty(figures 14∼16). In late Chosun dynasty Locana gathers his hands to form ∧-shape(figures 21, 22). The three Buddhas are placed by the order of Sakya Tathagata, Vairocana and Locana from left to right. The formations of paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas have been developed from simple compositions to complicated ones three Buddhas with Vairocana at the center or three Buddhas with Vairocana at the rear → three assemblies of Buddhas → double composition of three Buddha-kayas and three Buddhas in three Buddhist places. The paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas are mostly from late Chosun dynasty and show stylistic changes in three stages. In the first stage from 1636 to 1724, they remains in clumsy and indelicate styles of early Chosun. Round composition rather than two layers of upper and lower ones was newly introduced. The Buddhas have remarkably larger body than other figures and are positioned with space. Usually the whole canvas is covered with bright and rich colors of emerald, pink, and yellow upon main hues of green and scarlet. The patterns of decoration are delicate and exquisite, realizing the beautiful and majestic Buddhist world.(figures 12, 29, 30, 32, 41, 42, 45, 50, 51) In the second stage from 1725 to 1800, Koreans established political and economic stability, and achieved Koreanized style for the paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas based upon the prosperity of Hua-wen Sect(華嚴宗). The whole space of canvas is filled with Buddhas and other figures placed in their own positions. Pure blue as well as bright green and scarlet give light atmosphere to the paintings.(figures 13∼16, 18, 28, 34, 43, 46∼49, 52) In the third stage from 1801 to 1910, stylistic retreat is remarkable. Political uproar and economic instability reflected its influence on artistic techniques and compositions of the paintings. A number of widened canvas were used, and usually filled with lots of figures. Especially figures around the Buddhas are presented with bigger bodies than former stages. Canvases are covered with turbid and impure colors. However we find new stylistic trends from western painting such as chiaroscuro in this stage. The paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas examined above represent most beautiful and ideal world of Buddhism, which consists of perfections of Dharma-kaya(法身), Nirmana-kaya(化身) and Sambhoga-kaya(報身). With the unique composition and iconography Korean artisans realize Buddhist thoughts of Hua-wen Sect into art work. The paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas, I believe, are distinguished artistic embodiment of universal truth of Buddhism as well as one of the most perfect objects to be worshiped.

朝鮮時代 鄕校財政에 관한 硏究 : 釜山·慶南 地域의 鄕校를 中心으로

최용준 慶星大學校 敎育大學院 1990 국내석사

The purpose of this thesis is to review the finance of Hanggyo(Confucian School in local area), which continued as a local public school around Pusan and Kyung - nam district in Chosen Dynasty with reference to Ki- mun(records of Hanggyo). First, the inquiry of establishment, essential function and system of Hanggyo in Chosun Dynasty. Second, the change of educational and social function of Hanggyo as a local public school in especially the late of Chosun Dynasty through examining the method of financial security. Third, the character of Hanggyo system in the late Chosun Dynasty and its role in the community through examining the use and the main user of the securied finance. The following is the results ; First, Hanggyo was the middle class education system for locality. It had begun in Koryo Dynasty for the education of Yang-sa(raising Suhnbi) with the function of Mun-myeu-hang-sa(sacrificing to Mun-myeu) and the center of social education. In the early Chosun Dynasty, it was strongly supported by the government providing with Kyo-dap(the estate of Hangyo) and servants. It was also established in whole country ; Buh, Mok, Kun, Hyeun. The government also sent faculty for Yang-sa. But gradually the local education was less interesting and decreasing in government's support in the late Chosun Dynasty. Second, from the late of Chosun Dynasty Hanggyo-juhn(the estate of Hanggyo) was secured and managed by the local officials and residents voluntarily. The Yulim(Confucianists) have tendency to possess the tenant right. The number of servants belonging to Hanggyo was also decreased according to the change of status and became a group sharing with the right and interests of Hanggyo. Third, the finance of Hanggyo in the late of Chosun Dynasty was more spent for many kinds of meeting than for Yang-sa's board and lodging. The collecting of Aek-wae-kyo-sang(supernumerary students) and selling Myun-kang-chirp(examination relief by giving money) which had begun because of the poor finance since the invasion of Japan in Im-jin year was the main reason of fading the encouragement of learning. Fourth, Hanggyo in the late of Chosun Dynasty played more part in enlighteing the community by keeping respect of sages rather than stressing the teaching. It continued and maintained the stream of Confucianism through Mun-myeu-hang-sa. Fifth, Hanggyo of which the major function-encouragement of learning-disa-pperared and strengthened the role of organ of self-administration for Hang-sa-lim(local scholars) as a center of forming public opinions. As in mentioned above, Hanggyo in the late of Chosun Dynasty weakened the function of education system as a public school, it rather strengthened the function of social education for the community. It was also maintained by the self-management of Hang-sa-lim as a center of forming public opinions.

朝鮮後期 瀟湘八景圖에 대한 硏究

장계수 東國大學校 大學院 1999 국내석사

This dissertation is to research Eight Views of Hsiao and Hsiang River of tile late Chosun Dynasty. Eight Views of Hsiao and Hsiang River is to describe the landscape of the point where Hsiao and Hsiang river meet in eight subjects. The eight views consists of Wild Geese Descending to Sandbar, Mountain Market clear with Rising Mist, Returning Sail off Distant Shore, Fishing Village in Evening Glow, Autumn Moon over Lake Tung Ting, River and Sky in Evening Snow, Evening Bell Mist shrouded Temple, and Night Rain on Hsiao and Hsiang. Eight Views of Hsiao and Hsiang River originated from Southern Song in China was painted through the whole Chosun Dynasty after being accepted on Koryo Dynasty. However, there is no existing painting of Koryo, only the fragmentary records inform the existence. The contemporary famous Painters painted Eight Views of Hsiao and Hsiang River after the early Chosun Dynasty since the beginning of the Chosun Dynasty. The contemporary style of painting can be understood through the paintings painted by them. The eight subjects is very important materials to understand the history of paintings, because they are recited poem of Eight Views of Hsiao and Hsiang as well as the illustrated poem. In consideration of the characteristics of these subjects, this dissertation tries to research tile painting style of the late Chosun Dynasty in comparison with the early and the middle's, and tries to examine the slate to change since the beginning of tile late Chosun. The elements of changes are as follows. First of all, tile way of description about composition and subject is changed in tile stylistic side. Also new style of painting begins to appear different from tile former. Eight Views of Hsiao and Hsiang River of tile early Chosun shows the characteristic of one-sided composition that arranges the scenery at one side. The works of National Museum and Dae Won Temple in Japan are examples. But the characteristic of composition was broken by Jung Sun(鄭敾) and Sim Sa Jung(沈師正). The breakdown of composition have an effect on a fixed formal characteristic and description of the scenery for describing the subject. Namely the scenery which express tile subject is deleted or neglected. The typical example is Night Rain on Hsiao and Hsiang of Korea University's possession. This work expresses the subject to grasp the strong flow as a near view. If there is no ornamental seal characters, what the work means will be ambiguous. Also there is new trial of change in style of painting. The painting of tile Southern School which is the characteristic of painting of the late Chosun is accepted as the way of expression. The earliest work showing the change is Yoon Doo Seo's Wild Geese Descending to Sandbar. Many painters adopt the change of style of painting. First of all, Jung Sun(鄭敾) who completes the real landscape accepts the painting of the Southern School. After him it becomes the main current in Sim Sa Jung(沈師正), Choi Buk(崔北), and Lee In Moon(李寅文)'s works. In the late Chosun the imitative works of Eight Views of Hsiao and Hsiang River begins to be shown. Yoon Che Hong's Fishing Village in Evening Glow imitates Sim Sa Jung's. The imitative paintings begin to show in the late Chosun as an effect of China. The fact that the imitative works show in Eight Views of Hsiao and Hsiang River proves that the characteristic of works has something to do with the traditional subject. In addition the social change makes the enjoyable class Eight Views of Hsiao and Hsiang River be expanded. The eight subjects expand into poetry, Pansori, and the folk paintings. Eight Views of Hsiao and Hsiang River originated from China has changed and developed in many ways. Also the changes of Eight Views of Hsiao and Hsiang River have something to do with the social changes.

朝鮮初期 鄕校의 敎育 機能에 관한 硏究

정선화 경희대학교 교육대학원 2002 국내석사

The purpose of this study is find to the ability of educational·social·historical on Hyang-kyo ―locality education engine―in the early chosun(朝鮮). Hyung-kyo is origin when koryo(高麗) Dynasty and hyang-kyo is education of the middle the change of the from kroyo Dynasty that early chosun they need to acquirement of justness about new Danasty. Therefore they are stress the necessity of complete about policy education. this is a ideological and institutional of equipment for grovern mental state power who the governing class. So the state a matter of concern and interest in the Hyang-Kyo for they are careful concerned about student teacher and professor and there a chang of policy. this is desirable that consoli date class's position in maintenace and strengthen get through human's ethical awakening and cultivation. The complete of education system when the end koryo, the early chosun is concerned about change of political strength before make Sinjinsadaebu(新進士大夫)'s debut is front, sahack(私學) is a administered to monopolized. this is a footing who influential family of the end koryo. but Sinjinsadaebus try to reconstruction of a state engine of education for Sungrihak(性理學) has come in to wide use from china. Sungrihak is a stand on the basic of thoughtical who Sinjinsadaebu. but Sinjinsadaeabu is separated that party of founding chosun and party of opposition because of harbor ill feeling against each other after establishment a country chosun. so they maintained a different view about complete of education system in the early chosun. This dispute that complete of education system was stopted after come to the throne Taejong(太宗) and taking a triangular position with the object of social that rest and lecture of new structure of society. Sungrihak became basic of society and politics ethics that ideological foundation of complete of education system in the early chosun. so governing class was concerned about human's nature morality of society and the side of method. for take a serious view of Ye(禮), they found that basic of moral out of investigation and practice of Ye. but the way of practice was different in according with the nobility different of nobility hold sway over the separated a person of high position. so Ye was backed up in discriminative treatment. Hyang-kyo has two object about open the offices to the talented of locality non-official civilian. ability of school education became instituted on promotion of Hyang-kyo in the early chosun. so Hyang-kyo was instituted similar to Sungunkyan(成均館). Hyang-kyo get accomplished that Surieng(守令)'s capability. he was king's representative for his service efficiency was received to rise and fall of Hyang- kyo. so Hyang-kyo was very imported to education system of the early chosun. but after the middle part chosun, lower of government's concern, encourage of private school. so Hyang-kyo's ability was deteriorating that poverty of financial and decadent trend of itself. Ability of society education was government's situation. so it is more important society education is edification of locality non-official civilian than open the offices to 속 talented of locality in the early chosun. Hyang-kyo's importance is emphasized to governing class because Kyohaw(敎化) become recognized that very importent of politics. At Hyang-kyo was through 『Sohak』(小學) and Hyangemzurea(鄕飮酒禮), hyangsarea(鄕射禮), yangnoen(養老宴) and so on that adapted to direction system to non-offical civilian.

朝鮮朝 妓流文學 硏究 : 士大夫와의 酬唱關係를 中心으로

박종수 檀國大學校 1988 국내박사

朝鮮朝 女流文學의 中心創作階層은 妓女들이었다. 그들은 士大夫와 共存關係에 있었으며, 특히 詩를 주고 받음으로 그 共存關係의 끈끈한 끈을 맺었다고 할 수 있다. 그러므로 兩者 사이의 媒介體로 作用한 詩文學은 단지 兩者를 연결시키는 촉매역할로써만 볼 것이 아니라 우리의 文學的 遺産을 더욱 풍부하게 촉진시킨 것으로 보아야 할 것이다. 본 연구가 妓女들의 詩를 통시적으로 고찰하여 그 文學史的 意義를 밝혀본 것이나, 兩者間에 酬唱되었던 作品들을 오늘의 시점에서 再照明하는 데 目的을 둔 연유가 여기에 있다. 다 알다시피 士大夫家의 生活은 엄격한 규율과 절제가 특징이었다. 抑佛崇儒政策과 함께 高麗末 이래의 풍기 문란이 직접적인 원인으로 여성의 잦은 외출이 婦德에 크게 손상되었기 때문에 여성은 閨房에서 生活하도록 엄한 규제를 당하게 되었다. 즉 여성에게는 順從과 貞淑, 희생적 봉사만이 일방적으로 강요되었다. 뿐만 아니라 개성을 무시한 德育만을 강조하였기 때문에 夫婦間에도 禮를 숭상하는 관계가 지속된 것이다. 그러므로 士大夫와 妓女의 만남은 엄격하게 통제된 감정의 유로였으며, 그것은 곧 윤리의 질서를 벗어난 자연스런 共存關係를 형성하게 되는 원인이었다. 그 만남의 장에서 자유롭고 폭넓고 순수한 인간 본연의 모습을 보여주는 愛情文學이 탄생한 것이다. 朝鮮朝 初期에 비해 17세기 이후 實學思想이 싹트면서 士大夫의 문학에서도 민중의 생활을 사실적으로 표현하는 새로운 경향이 대두되었던 점은 주목할 만한 일이다. 妓女는 이러한 士大夫文學의 변천에 깊은 영향을 줌으로써 한국문학사에 활성적이고 긍정적인 기여를 한 것이 사실이다. 또한 妓女는 士大夫文學을 익혀 모방의 단계를 거쳐 자신들의 창의성을 발휘하여, 妓女 특유의 독특한 문학 세계를 創出하였다. 이렇게 볼 때 妓女는 문학의 전승자로서도 중요한 역할을 담당하고 있었음을 구체적으로 확인한 셈이다. 다시말하면 兩者는 文學的으로 緊密한 유대와 受容의 관계에 있었다고 할 수 있다. 그러므로 本稿에서 士大夫와 妓女가 서로 영향을 주면서 創出했던 작품들을 고찰하는 데 주안점을 두었다. 물론 士大夫와 妓女가 처해있는 상황이 각기 다르기 때문에 외형적으로는 共存關係에 있었으나, 그 문학적 성격은 근본적으로 다르게 나타난다. 가정을 갖고 있는 士大夫의 경우 妓女와의 사랑은 外道로 표현되었지만, 반면에 妓女는 士大夫의 반려자가 되기를 갈망한 나머지 妓女 특유의 애절한 詩風을 남긴 것이다. 아울러 妓女의 文學이 漢詩와 時調에 국한된 것은 士大夫와의 접촉하는 시간이 짧았고, 妓女들의 생태가 韻律이 몸에 배어 자신의 情感을 압축된 抒情的 형식으로 표출하는 데 유리한 위치에 있었음을 밝혔다. 이상을 고찰함에 있어서 본 연구자는 다음과 같은 두 줄기의 맥락을 대전제로 하였다. 妓女의 形成과 發達에 관하여 通時的인 면에서 고찰한 것이 그 첫째 줄기요, 詩文學作品을 통하여 士大夫와 妓女와의 酬唱關係를 고찰한 것이 그 다음 맥락이다. 그리하여 兩者 사이에서 創出된 문학이 한국 문학에 어떻게 영향을 주었는가를 천착하여 보았다. 妓女의 超源에 대해서는 여러 가지 說이 있으나, 그것이 制度化된 것은 고려 초기부터였다. 宮婢中 色藝者를 뽑아 容粧을 시켜 歌舞를 익히게 하여 宮中宴會에 참석시켰으며, 차츰 私妓化하여 朝鮮朝에 그대로 전하여졌음을 밝혔다. 士大夫와 妓女는 대개의 경우 宴會를 매개체로 이루어지는 특수한 관계이며, 詩文學은 그 관계 하에서 생성된 결과인 만큼 酬唱關係라는 일정한 외형적 제약 하에 성립된 것이다. 妓女를 대상으로 한 士大夫들의 詩는 순간적인 사랑과 그리움을 노래하고 借別의 情을 읊은 작품과, 일시적 유흥으로 獻弄과 諷剌를 노래한 작품들로 크게 양분된다. 士大夫들의 작품 가운데는 妓女를 愛情의 대상으로서 뿐만 아니라 詩友로서 인정하고 있는 경우도 드물지 않았다는 사실로 확인되었다. 그러나 士大夫들의 妓女에 대한 愛情은 자연을 감상하듯 美貌의 妓女를 사랑하고 찬양한다는 한계를 초월한 작품은 흔치 않다. 이에 비하여 士大夫들을 대상으로 한 妓女의 詩는 자신의 경험에서 우러난 순수한 感情을 진솔하게 노래한 작품이 주류를 이루고 있다. 妓女들의 간절한 소망은 士大夫들과 가정을 이루어 한사람의 人間으로서 대접받고자 하는 것이다. 오늘날에는 因習의 제약으로 생각되고 있는 一夫從事나 가정적 속박이 妓女들에게는 오히려 선망의 대상이었음이 확인된다. 그리하여 이같은 갈망이 좌절당한 데서 오는 相思·孤獨·戀慕·身世恨歎의 노래가 妓女詩의 주류를 이룬다. 또한 妓女들의 詩世界에서 빼놓을 수 없는 것은 士大夫들에 대한 금전적 기대이다. 이것은 妓女라는 특수한 신분의 생활 방편이었던만큼 금전을 매개로 한 관계였다. 그들에게 士大夫는 경제와 애정을 보장하는 후원자였던 셈이다. 이상의 고찰을 요약하면 士大夫들의 技女에 대한 詩는 愛情을 노래한 詩가 주류를 이루고 있지만, 그 愛情은 人間性을 바탕으로 한 純粹한 愛情과는 거리가 있다는 사실이다. 그들은 자연을 사랑하고 그리워하듯 解語花인 妓女들을 사랑하고 그리워했을 뿐이다. 반면 妓女들의 士大夫에 대한 詩는 自身의 人間性에 바탕을 둔 純粹한 抒情文學이며 妓女라는 특수한 신분의 位相에서 좌절당할 수 밖에 없는 別離의 詩가 주류를 이룬다. 그들이 주로 노래하고 있는 相恩와 離別의 情恨은 韓國文學의 한 特性으로 파악되 恨의 文學과 긴밀히 연관되며 韓國 近代詩까지 맥이 닿아 있음을 알 수 있다. 이것은 한국문학의 전통을 형성하는 하나의 계기점으로 삼을 수 있음을 시사하는 것이다. 개개의 작품을 일일이 構造的으로 分析할 수 없었던 점은 본고의 방법론상의 제약상 피하였다. 이에 대한 고찰은 다음 연구의 과제로 삼고자 한다. This thesis is on the close ties between the high-born and the Kisaeng that has been described in Korean poetry. The high-born in the Yi Dynasty observed certain properties which were based on metaphysics, but much weight was given to Korean music accompanied by dancers and musical instruments in the Royal court, strictly self-controlling. They had a tendency to be biased in favor of the ideal. After the appearance of Jeong Yak-yong with the pen name of Dasan, realism began to predominate and have an effect on literature. The orthodox and familiar literature that the high clase embraced, such as Chinese poetry and ancient writings was differently expressed by the local, plain and realistic methods and furthermore came to take on a popular touch through satire and humor. The Kisaeng had influenced the literature of the high class in many ways. Kisaengs were women of personal beauty and were good at singing, dancing and playing the Kayageum, as well. So they were invited to join various banquet. They, of course, might well have learned the polite manners and narrative skill of the upper class so as to keep in touch with them. Low class people as they were, Kisaengs were thought to be the initiator or pioneers who handed down and developed the Middle literature from t h e modern point of view. In the late Koroyo Dynasty, the role of the Kisaeng were systematized. They played an important role in a court banquet, created an atmosphere between the ruler and the ruled, and even entertained foreign messengers from China or Japan cordially. What is especilly noteworthy were the Yakpang-Ki (Medical Kisaeng) and Weean-Ki. They were those who contributed greatly to the health of the wives of the high-born and were those who provided troops guarding the borders with comforts. Their various peculiarities, in many respects, resulted from their particular specialty. At any rate their social standing was in no way mobile. They were humbly born and had to please the other sex. The Kisaeng in those days were the only level permitted to have an unrestricted and wide acquaintance with the opposite sex, compared with the daughters of good families who were thoroughly restricted under Confucian principles. the Kisaeng were a sort of prostitute to entertain at banquets, satisty sexual appetites and be on otherwise happy and carefree profession. In the Koryo Dynasty the government forced ruined people who had previously fishermen servants. Among these people, beautiful and talented maid-servants were selected and fashioned themselves to be Kisaeng. And the selected girls were trained in singing and dancing to become Kyobang-Ki, who took part in the important court functions such as Yoˇnduˇng-hwoi, Palkwan-hwoi that were the main Buddhistic ceremonies. They also joined in welcome meetings when the king went out and toured. The kings, in the late Koryo Dynasty era, excessively enjoyed singing and dancing with Kisaengs. As a result official discipline broke down, it was a cause for national ruin. In the Yi Dynasty the Kisaeng were also one of eight low-class groups. In spite of their humble social status, they could be on good terms with the nobillity, learn many skills including medical science, sewing, singing and dancing, and served the royal families whenever necessary. Kisaengs were required to sympathize with the words, the way of thinking and the life style of the high-born, not to speak of physical contacts. They imitated and created literary works to meet the needs of times. The originality of their own world of literature showed strong local colors. Kwandong-Ki and Kyoˇngsuˇng-Ki were good at 'Kwandongpyoˇlkog (an old style unrhymed verse)', Andong- Ki composed 'Daehag', Yoˇnghuˇng-Ki 'Yongbioˇcheonga', Hambuˇng-Ki Choolsapyo', Jeju- Ki 'Jumajiki, Pyoˇngyang-Ki 'Kwansan yungmasi', Kyoˇngsang-Ki and Choˇlla-Ki 'Tanka'. These examples of local varitety resulted from the fierce struggle for existence among the groups belonging to this profession. They were not only highly praised for the great works by men of great insight, but preserved and succeeded in the traditional arts, which made them take a pride. Kisaengs obtained their social standing from mother to daughter. To classify them by industry, there were Yakpang-Ki, Sangbang-Ki and Gongjo-Ki. The society of Kisaengs was strictly divided into the first-pae, t h e second-pae and the third-pae Kisaengs Moreover there were Sadang-pae (a troupe of singing and dancing girls) and barmaids whose work was prostitution and women serving as prostitutes. This thesis treats only the first-pae, who drank and sang in the companionship of the high-born. The first-pae Kisaeng received a strict education from the teaching staff. After their courses, they had to pass an examination. They were supervised thoroughly so as not to neglect their training. Therefore these Kisaengs were professional, well-educated women under a stern educational system. The education of institutions for these women were Kyobang in the Koryo Dynasty and Jesaengwon, Hyeminseo Sangeui-won, Kisaeong-cheong in the Yi Dynasty. Since the Koryo dynasty Korean music with dancers and musical instruments in the Royal court caused so many social problems that it was a target of criticism. The reason that the Kisaeng oxisted for more than 500 years through the Yi Dynasty was for the necessity of being recognized as having comforted the soldiers on the borders and having prevented women of the high class from suffering sexual injuries. The interrelationship closely connected through various parties between them resulted in the creation of this poetic by-product. High-born men composed Kisaeng-oriented poetry, but there was a great difference among their works although they loved each other. The high-born were mainly enthusiastic about expressing their momentary love affairs with them and passfons just like praising her and sexual pleasure, sorrowful parting from her; on the other hard, Kisaengs mostly described their grievous, touching love affairs with their partner such as parting from him, love sickness, solitude, attachment and a bitter feeling. To sum up, the poems of the high class were on the subject of love affairs with a Kisaeng and those of the Kisaeng were on separation from a lover. That's why the subjects of their verse were different in character from the start. I realized in this study that the reason of setting limits to Chinese poetry and Sijo had been closely related with the short period of loving mutually and that the Kisaeng had expressed their feelings in a very condensed manner. And there were considerable works of Sijo written by Kisaengs, which had been monopolized by the male high- born in those days. This proves the Kisaeng's having relations with the high official. Some of the high-born looked for affection with Kisaengs when they could not be satisfied with conjugal relations. I view their relation as a natural and humanistic phenomenon. Both of them influenced reciprocally and from here was born the femine literature. Folk songs were popularized to the common people by the third -pae and so were established as popular literature of which the joys and sorrows of life were sung. With Kisaengs' participation in the world of literature since the Koryo Dynasty and the appearance of commoner writers such as Kim Soo-jang, Kim Cheon-tage, Ahn Min- yeong and Park Hyo-kwan in the Chosoˇn dynasty, extensive knowledge of Chinese of the high-born and outspoken emotions of the common people were finally developed into the popular song through the medium of alcholic drinks. These folk songs were treated as genre, too. The Kisaeng, in general, acted as temporary bridge between the upper clase and the low class. Therefore I suggest this level should be studied in detail in the point of view of Korean literature, history and sociology, and what not. In the course of more that 1,000 years, the Kisaeng handed down not only the middle and modern poetry but a traditional composite art, and played a great role in developing female literature.

조선 후기 야담에 재현된 이계 서사의 고찰 : 『요재지이』와의 대비를 겸하여

Yuan, Fangcao 연세대학교 대학원 2017 국내석사

본고는 『천예록(天倪錄)』과 『학산한언(鶴山閑言)』을 주요 연구 대상으로 삼아 조선 후기 야담집에 재현된 기이 서사, 특히 이계 서사를 중심으로 이에 투영된 당시 사대부들의 기이 인식, 그리고 자아 인식과 타자 인식을 고찰했다. 16ㆍ17세기, 조선에서는 임진왜란과 병자호란 두 번의 전란을 겪었다. 이로 인해 대량의 인명피해가 발생했고 삶과 죽음을 바라보는 사대부들의 시선이 달라지면서 이들이 기이를 대하는 인식과 자세도 달라졌다. 이것은 조선 후기 야담에 기이한 이야기가 많이 수록되기 시작한 시대적 배경이자 야담집에 수록된 서사 텍스트의 관점과 지향이 변화하는 근본적인 원인이기도 하다. 기이 서사에 대한 연구가 이에 투영된 시대적, 사회적 현실에 대한 연구이자, 편저자인 사대부들의 인식에 대한 연구인 이유라고 보는 것은 이 때문이다. 본고는 주로 서사 공간 이론을 기본적인 연구 방법으로 삼아 이계 서사를 지상별천지, 신선세계와 저승세계 세 가지로 나눠 비교적 고찰을 진행했다. 창작 배경과 목적을 보면 공통점이 있지만 이들은 공간 구성과 인물 설정 등 면에서 큰 차이가 보인다. 지상별천지는 사람의 기본적인 요구를 만족시키는 기본적인 이상적 사회이고, 신선세계는 모든 욕망을 충족시킬 수 있는 고급적인 공간이며, 저승세계는 인간 세상의 확대공간이라고 간주할 수 있다. 이 세 가지 공간에 있어서 이계 거주자가 외래자에 대해 다른 태도를 보인다. 소외시키는 경우가 있고, 동화시키는 경우가 있고, 전혀 관심을 보이지 않는 경우도 있다. 조선 후기 야담의 특성을 더 선명히 이해하기 위해 본고는 비슷한 시기의 중국 저작『요재지이(聊齋志異)』와의 비교를 진행했다. 양자는 시대적 배경, 공간 구성과 인물 설정 등 면에서 유사점과 차이점을 모두 보였다. 그 외에, 서사 평결의 비교를 통해서 조선 사대부와 청나라 문인의 인식 차이, 주로 기이 인식과 타자 인식의 차이를 드러냈다. 결론적으로 보면 조선 사대부가 전란의 고통과 유교적 사회 규범에서 벗어나기 위해 기이한 존재를 상상했지만결과적으로 이는 현실 사회를 부정하는 것이 아니었다. 청나라 문인 포송령의 경우, 현실을 비판하기 위해서 비현실적이고 기이한 존재를 창출해서 어느 정도 현실 부정의 경향을 보이고 있었다. 조선 사대부들은 자신이 기이한 존재가 아니라 사회의 주류적 존재를 입증하기 위해 기이한 이야기를 기록했다. 이와 대비하여 포송령은 현실을 더 잘 반영하고 비판하기 위해 기이하거나 초월적인 존재를 자기와 따로 구분하지 않았다. 이는 개인 인식의 차이가 없지 않지만 근본적으로는 시대적 배경과 사회 관념 때문에 형성된 차이라고 본다. This study takes Chynyerok and Haksanhaneon as objects of research, and discusses the bizarre stories and tales of Yadam recorded during Late Chosun Dynasty, especially those on the mysterious world. The purpose is to obtain a clear knowledge on understandings of literati and officialdom about bizarre stories, themselves and others in Chosun Dynasty. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Chosun Dynasty underwent the Japanese pirates invasion and the second Manchu invasion. Large numbers of injuries and deaths caused significant changes in understandings of literati and officialdom on life and death, as well as bizarrerie. It is the historical background for bizarre stories and tales of the Yadam. It is also the essential reason for the change in tendency of narration. Therefore, research on bizarre stories also reveal the research on social reality, as well as author’s understanding on the class of literati and officialdom. As for research methods, the author takes spatial narrative theory as the basis, and conducts comparative analysis by dividing narration of the mysterious world into three types of spacial narration: Utopia, the celestial world and the underworld. Utopia can be regarded as the basic society to meet essential demands of people. The celestial world is more superb space to realize all desires. The underworld is the extended space for systems and orders of the mundane world. As for the three types of spaces, characters in the different world also indicate repulsive, receptive or indifferent attitudes. In order to study the features of Yadam during Late Chosun Dynasty better, this study compares them with Strange Tales of Liaozhai of the Qing Dynasty in China. They have similarities and differences in historical background, space composition and character settings. Besides, comparing narrative comments can directly reveal differences in understandings’ of literati and officialdom during the Late Chosun Dynasty and Qing Dynasty on bizarrerie and others. As for the conclusion, the purpose for literati and officialdom’s imagination in Chosun Dynasty is to escape from the pain caused by wars and social regulations. They did not deny the social reality in essence. In contrast, as for Pu Songling’s depiction on surreal existence, he primarily aimed to criticize and deny social reality. For literati and officialdom during the Late Chosun Dynasty, they recorded bizarre stories to prove themselves as the mainstream existence of the society. Pu Songling equated himself with bizarre and surreal existence, in order to reveal and criticize reality. Such differences in personal understanding. But more importantly, they are caused by historical backgrounds and social concepts. 本文以《天倪录》及《鹤山闲言》为研究对象,对朝鲜后期野谈所载奇异叙事,主要是异界叙事进行了考察。其目的在于借此了解当时朝鲜士大夫阶层的奇异认识以及自我认识、他者认识。 16、17世纪,朝鲜先后经历了壬辰倭乱和丙子胡乱两次大规模战乱。大量的人命伤亡引发了士大夫阶层生死观的改变,也导致了其奇异认识的变化。这是朝鲜后期野谈中奇异叙事多有收录的时代背景,也是导致叙事倾向变化的根本原因。因此对奇异叙事的研究也是对其所反映出的社会现实进行研究,是对编著者士大夫阶层的认识进行研究。 在研究方法上,笔者主要以叙事空间理论为基础,将异界叙事划分为理想乡、神仙世界和冥界三种空间叙事进行具体比较分析。尽管在创作背景和创作目的上有共同之处,但三者在空间构成以及人物设定等方面存在着巨大的差异。理想乡可以看做是满足人类基本需求的基础社会,神仙世界是实现所有欲望的高级空间,冥界则成为了人世制度与秩序的扩展空间。而三种空间中,异界内人物对外来者也表现出了或排斥或接纳或无关心的态度差异。 为了更好地考察朝鲜后期野谈的特征,本文还将其与同一时期的中国著作《聊斋志异》进行了比较。二者在时代背景、空间构成、人物设定等方面既有相似之处,也表现出了巨大差异。此外,对叙事评论的比较更是直接体现出了朝鲜士大夫和清朝文人在奇异认识、他者认识上的差异。 从结论上来看,朝鲜士大夫对奇异的想象,其目的在于逃离战乱的痛苦及社会的规范,但本质上并未否定现实社会。而清朝文人蒲松龄刻画超现实的存在,其目的在于批判,存在着否定现实的倾向。朝鲜士大夫记录奇异之事,其目的在于证明自己并非奇异,是社会的主流存在。蒲松龄则将奇异的、超现实的存在与自己等同,其目的在于更好地反映与批判现实。这是个人认识的差异,但更重要的是时代背景和社会理念造就的差异。