The effect of extrinsic reward on sport performance, perceived competence and intrinsic motivation

최환봉 Victoria University of Technology 1996 해외박사

이 연구는 스포츠 활동 또는 경기에서 자주 경기력향상을 위해 사용하는 언어적(칭찬) 그리고 물질적(금전) 보상이 스포츠 내적동기, 능숙도 그리고 스포츠 성적에 미치는 영향을 연구하는데 목적이 있다. 선행연구에 의한 분석은 종래의 외적보상은 내적동기를 높이는 동시에 성적을 향상시킨다고 하였다. 과잉 외적 보상이 원래의 내적 동기가 보상을 중단한 경우에 어떻게 될까 하는 것에 중요한 문제가 제기되었다. 즉 이 이론에 의하면 물질적 보상은 오히려 보상적의 내적 동기가 감소하여 흥미를 잃고 다시 참가하려고 하지 않는다는 결론 이였다. 선행연구의 대부분이 단기간의 결론으로 장기간의 연구가 필요하다. 그러나 언어적 보상(칭찬)은 계속 내적 동기에 도움이 된다고 하였다. 일부 심리학자들은 외적보상에 대한 부정적 견해로 스포츠나 교육현장에서 사용을 신중하게 해야한다고 하였다. 이 연구는 이러한 이론을 검정하기 위하여 실제 스포츠 상황에 적용하였다. 연구 대상은 호주 멜브론에 있는 중등학교의 연령은 13세 에서 16세를 대상으로 농구 자유투의 성적에 물질적 보상으로 기간을 세단계에 걸쳐 연구를 하였다. 처음에는 원래의 내적동기를 조사하였고, 그리고 2주후에 농구 자유투와 함께 성적이 향상된 것에 보상으로 20개 자유투중 전에 보다 성공한 자유투 개수에 대하여 각 50센터의 보상을 하였다. 그리고 2주후에 어떤 보상 없이 다시 자유투를 하였다. 매 자유투 전후로 각각 내적동기, 능숙도를 측정하여 비교하였다. 연구대상을 두 집단으로 실험집단 (보상) 과 통제집단(무보상)으로 구성하였다. 사전연구로 내적동기 질문지 개발을 위하여 McAuly, Wraith and Duncan (1991) 사용한 질문지를 4차에 걸쳐 내적합치도 Cronbach's Alpha (r=0.90) 으로 문항수가 11개로 하였다. 그리고 Test-Retest로 신뢰도(r=0,96)를 얻어 사용하였다. 2차 중심연구는 금전적 보상이 내적동기, 능숙도 그리고 스포츠 성적에 미치는 영향을 알아보았다. 연구대상은 호주 멜브론에 재학중인 중등학생, 연령은 13-16세를 대상으로 남녀 구분하여 연구하였다. 연구의 결과는 금전적 보상이 내적동기(p<0.05), 능숙도 그리고 스포츠성적을 증가시키는 것으로 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 그리고 2주후 어떤 보상이 없어도 약간의 긍정적 영향이 있는 것으로 나타났다. 성별로는 남학생이 여학생보다 더 긍적적인 영향이 있는 것으로 나타났다. 이 연구의 인과관계를 알아보기 위하여 회귀분석으로 역시 외적 보상이 내적 동기에 의미(p<0.05)가 있는 것으로 나타났다. 3차연구는 언어적 보상 (칭찬, 통제) 집단에 비교하였다. 이 연구의 결과는 칭찬집단이 통제집단 보다 내적동기, 능숙도 그리고 성적에 높은 점수(p<0.05)를 나타냈다. 남학생이 여학생보다 칭찬이 더 효과적인 것으로 나타났다. 이 연구도 2차연구와 마찬가지로 회귀분석을 하여 칭찬이 통제보다 성적, 내적동기 그리고 능숙도에 드높은 상관관계를 나타냈다. 마지막으로 질문지의 구성간에 내적 신뢰도와 그 내용간의 타당성을 알아보기 위해 CFA (Confirmatory Factor Analysis)를 사용하였다. 그 결과는 GFI (0.92), AGFI (0.92) 그리고 RMSR (0.231)를 얻어서 적합한 것으로 나타났다. 선행연구의 분석으로 종래의 외적보상이 내적동기, 능숙도 그리고 스포츠성적을 향상시키는 것으로 보이나, 이것은 보상이 바로 주어진 직후 더욱 크게 나타냇고 그러나 보상 없는 경우에는 그 정도가 약화되기는 했지만 그래도 의미가 있는 것으로 나타났다. 물질적 보상이 언어적 보상보다 더 큰 의미로 나타냈고, 남학생이 물질적 그리고 언어적 보상에 내적동기, 능숙도 그리고 성적에 더 의미가 있는 것으로 나타냈다. 이 연구의 결과는 아직 물질적 보상이 내적동기에 좋은 영향을 주는 것처럼 보이지만, 똑같은 스포츠 종목을 사용하였기 때문에 아마 운동의 기술습득에 의한 것으로도 설명되어진다고 추측할 수도 있다고 본다. 그리고 여러 가지 다른 나이와 스포츠 관심에 따라서 다른 연구결과도 얻을 수 있을 것 같다. 미래의 이 연구에 보완할 것은 물질적 보상과 언어적 보상이 어떻게 각각 어떤 영향이 장기간을 통하여 내적 동기, 능숙도와 성적의 변화에 관심을 가져야 할 것이다.

Psychosocial Interventions for the Prevention of Injury in Dance

노영은 Victoria University [of Technology] 2005 해외박사

In this thesis, I investigated aspects of the multi-component stress and injury model, which Williams and Andersen (1998) suggested could be applied in areas beyond sport. Two studies (Studies 1 and 2) were carried out with the goal to develop interventions, which were tested for their efficacy in the reduction of injuries, in a third study (Study 3). The purpose of Study 1 was to investigate whether psychosocial factors, such as stress, anxiety, social support, and coping skills, could predict injuries (frequency and duration) among 105 ballet dancers (101 females; 4 males), using a regression design. The dancers were professional ballet dancers (n = 27), university ballet students (n = 19), and ballet institute students (n = 59), with a mean age of 20.46 years (SD = 5.50). They completed a modified version of the Adolescent Perceived Events Scale (APES) and Sport Experiences Survey (SES), which address life and dance stress respectively, the Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS), the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory-28 (ACSI-28), and a social support for dance measure. Frequency and duration of injuries were recorded for a 10-month period after completion of the psychosocial measures. From the correlation matrix of psychosocial scales and injury, I selected for regression analysis variables that showed at least moderate correlations with the frequency and duration of injury (i.e., peaking under pressure, goal setting/mental preparation, freedom from worry, confidence, negative dance stress, negative life stress). One regression analysis identified freedom from worry and confidence as significant predictors for frequency of injury. A second regression analysis identified freedom from worry and negative dance stress as significant predictors for duration of injury. In Study 2, I examined the sources of stress and coping strategies of Korean professional ballet dancers, using in-depth interviews. Dancers (N = 20) were interviewed to identify the stressors they experienced and the coping strategies they used during practice or performance. Using inductive content analysis, I identified four major sources of stress that emerged from the data: physical (i.e., physical appearance, poor physical condition), psychological (i.e., desire, slump, personality), social (i.e., relationship with a dance director and other dancers), and situational factors (i.e., performance demands, finance). The results demonstrated that physical appearance (e.g., maintaining particular body type, keeping low body weight) was a preeminent problem. I also found that three general dimensions for coping were psychological strategies (i.e., individual cognitive and emotional strategies, avoidance strategies), behavioural strategies (i.e., dysfunctional behaviour, hobby activities, social interaction, dance related behaviour), and physical relaxation. The coping strategies mentioned most frequently in this study belonged to the behavioural strategies dimension. In particular, the dancers employed dysfunctional behaviour (e.g., overeating, drinking alcohol) to cope with stress. Identification of sources of stress and coping strategies not only help to identify the specific stressors and coping skills surrounding dance environments, but also provide a basis for designing intervention programs, which may help reduce stress through developing coping skills. The purpose of Study 3, the final study, was to examine the effects of two psychological interventions designed to prevent injury among dancers by enhancing coping skills. Participants were 35 ballet dancers. They were assigned to three conditions, control (n = 12), autogenic training (n = 12), and a broadbased coping skills condition, including autogenic training, imagery, and self-talk (n = 11). The 12-week interventions were designed on the basis of quantitative and qualitative results from the previous studies in the thesis. For weeks 13 to 24, participants were asked to practice their respective intervention three times a week. During the 24-week period (12 weeks training plus 12 weeks practice) training staff at the dance academies recorded injuries on a record sheet each day. Participants wrote injury records by themselves for another 24 weeks. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and univariate tests for each dependent variable showed that the broad-based coping skills condition enhanced coping skills, in particular: peaking under pressure, coping with adversity, confidence and achievement motivation, and concentration. Separate analyses of covariance (ANCOVA), one using pre-intervention injury frequency as the covariate and one using pre-intervention injury duration as the covariate revealed that dancers in the broad-based coping skills condition spent less time injured than those in the control condition. Overall, results indicated that the broad-based coping skills intervention was effective for enhancing targeted coping skills and reducing injury occurrence among Korean ballet dancers, supporting Williams and Andersen’s (1998) model of stress and injury. Because the broad-based coping skills was an intervention designed for particular Korean ballet dancers, based on quantitative and qualitative research, this intervention program may not be applicable to Western dancers. For future research, I recommend the approach I employed in this thesis, as the basis for designing effective and efficient interventions for dancers.

Stress, Attention and Sports Injury

범대진 Victoria University of Technology 1998 해외박사

This thesis investigated part of the Andersen and Williams (1988) model of stress and injury. Three studies were carried out. The first study examined the relationship between life stress and athletic injury. The sample consisted of 320 (234 males, 86 females) competitive contact team sport athletes in Melbourne clubs, who completed the Athletic Life Experience Survey (ALES) and Injury Surveillance System (ISS) to assess the stress-injury relationship. Injured athletes had higher ALES negative scores than athletes who were not injured (F (1, 316) = 7.28, 12 < .007). Further, higher levels of negative life stress were found for injuries where three to nine days were missed than for injuries where there was no missed practice and competition (F (3, 312) = 4.74, p < .003). The second study examined the effect of stress and psychosocial factors on visual attention. Twenty physical education students (10 male, 10 female) performed central and peripheral visual attention tasks under four stress conditions in a Latin Square design. Prior to performing the task, participants completed the ALES, Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (ACSI), and Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ-6) to measure psychosocial factors and a test of physical work capacity (PWC). Participants then performed the visual tasks (a) in a noise (white noise) condition, (b) in a physical activity condition, (c) with both noise and physical activity, and (d) in a baseline condition, with no noise or physical activity. Results indicated that participants in the stress conditions had significantly greater errors in detection of signals from a central (F (3, 76) = 2.88, P < .05) and peripheral targets (F (3, 57) =17.44, P < .001). Participants also had significantly greater response time from a central (F (3, 76) = 36.06, P < .001) and peripheral targets (F (3, 57) = 63.50, p < .001). There was also an increase in errors (F (3, 57) = 17.46, p < .001) and response times (F (3, 57) = 237.15, p < .001) as peripheral angle increased. This study, however, did not statistically support the existence of a relationship between psychosocial variables and central and peripheral response time. Although statistical significance was not achieved, the multiple regression analyses indicated that negative and positive combined life stress accounted for 15% of the variance in central errors, and negative life stress accounted for 19% of the variance in peripheral response times in attentional narrowing. The third study investigated the effectiveness of an anxiety management program for reducing the anxiety response to a stressful situation and, hence, the effect of the program on visual attention in such circumstances, as well as repeating the Study 2 examination of the effects of stress on visual attention during situations varying in objective stress. At preintervention, 24 physical education students (12 male, 12 female) performed central and peripheral visual attention tasks under three stress conditions in a Latin Square design. Prior to performing the task, participants completed the A-state scale of the State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) to measure state anxiety and a test of physical work capacity (PWC). Participants then performed the visual tasks (a) in a physical activity condition, (b) with both noise (crowd noise) and physical activity, and (c) in a baseline condition, with no noise or physical activity. Half the males and females at random then received an eight-week Autogenic Training (AT) program, while the others acted as a no contact control group. The STAI A-state scale and the visual attention task were then repeated. This study found that pre-intervention results supported Study 2, with decrements in central (F (2, 69) = 25.51, P < .001) and peripheral (F (2, 46) =148.94, p < .001) task performance under physical and physical plus psychological (noise) stress, which increased for larger peripheral angles. A significant (p < .05) reduction in A-state from pre- to post-intervention indicated significant (p < .05) in central and peripheral response times in the physical activity and physical activity/noise conditions for the AT group compared to the control group. Again, these reductions in response time were greater at wider peripheral angles. It was concluded that the results of the present thesis provide strong support for aspects of the Andersen and Williams (1988) model of stress and athletic injury relating to the effect of stress on attention and the influence of appropriate interventions to reduce stress.

Identification and characterisation of the cell surface and enzymatic barriers to plasmid transformation in Corynebacterium glutamicum and related species

장기효 Victoria University of Technology 1997 해외박사

산업적인 아미노산 발효에서 중요한 위치를 차지하는 Corynebacterium glutamicum과 관련된 균주(Brevibacterium lactofermentum, B. flavum)들은 corynebacteria으로 통칭되며, glutamine, lysine, tryptophane 등의 다양한 아미노산 생산과 핵산생산에 이용된다. 이러한 이유에서 corynebacteria에 대한 분자생물학적인 연구의 필요성이 대두되고 있다. 그러나 이러한 연구에서 큰 문제점중의 하나는 유용한 heterologously-derived DNA (외래유전자)를 corynebacteria로 형질전환시 전형적으로 나타나는 낮은 수율에서 기인한다. 이러한, 낮은 형질전환 수율의 주요한 원인은 크게 두가지로 나타낼 수 있으며, 이것은 균체의 특이한 세표표면구조에서 야기되는 물리적인 방해와 homologously-derived DNA를 methylation시키는 methyltransferase와 외부유전자를 식별하여 이를 절단하는 endonuclease (제한효소)의 존재에서 기인되는 효소적 방해로 구분된다. 본 연구에서는 높은 형질전환 수율을 보이는 mutant균주를 이용하여, parent균주와의 비교를 통하여 형질전환에 영향을 주는 요인을 분석하였다. 첫 번째로, 세표표면 구조를 연구하기 위하여 corynebacteria의 세표표면 성분의 생합성에 영향을 준다고 알려진 glycine, isonicotinic acid hydrazide(INH)를 배지성분으로, 독립적으로 그리고 두 저해제를 혼합된 형태로 첨가시켰을 때, 여러 corynebacteria균체의 성장속도를 비교하였다. 균체의 비증식 속도 값은 (μ값) glycine, INH의 농도가 증가함에 따라 감소되었으며, 특이하게도, 두 mutants 균주인 MLB133 MLB194는 parent균주인 AS019와 비교시, glycine/INH에 의한 성자 저해가 높게 나타났다. 또한, 저해제의 첨가는 균체의 형태를 변화시켜, branching 혹은 budding을 형성하였다. 6가지의 corynebacteria 균체를 각각 LBG (Luria broth plus glucose), LBG-glycine, LBG-INH에서 키운후, fatty acids와 mycolic acids의 profile을 비교하였을 때, 모든 균주에서, fatty acids의 profile는 유사하여쓰며, paimitic acid (C16:0)와 oleic acid (C18:1)가 전체 fatty acids의 92-98%를 차지하였다. Mycolic acids 분석시에는 다섯가지의 다른 type의 mycolic acids (C32:0, C34:0, C34:1, C36:1, C36:2)가, 모든 균주에서 얻어졌으나, 다섯가지 mycolic acids의 상대적인 비율은 사용된 균주, 배지 조성성분, 발효시간에 따라서 큰 변화를 보였다. 두 mutants 균주인 MLB133, MLB194는 AS019에 비교시 longer-chained, unsaturated mycolic acids의 함량이 높게 나타났다. Mycolic acids는 균체내부 뿐만 아니라, 배양액에서도 발견 되었으며, 배양액으로 유출되는 mycolic acids 함량은 배양시간에 따라서 증가하였다. 균체를 LBG 배지에서 정지기까지 키웠을 때, AS019, MLB133, MLB194에서 각각 3.5%, 6.5%, 7.9%의 mycolic acids가 배양액에서 발견되었다. 배지를 LBG-2% glycine으로 대체하였을 때, 배지액에서 발견되는 mycolic acids의 양은 AS019에서는 16.1%, MLB133에서는 무려 31%로 증가되었으며, 배지를 LBG-8 mg/INH으로 대체하였을 때, MLB133과 MLB194에서는 각각 18.8%, 21.2%의 mycolic acids가 배지액으로 추출되었다. 이러한 효과는 AS019에서는 비교적 낮게 나타나, 약 8.5%의 mycolic acids가 배양액에서 관찰되었다. 이러한 결과는 MLB133와 MLB194에서 일어난 mutation은 mycolic acid 생합성 기작과 (INH의 target site)생성된 mycolic acids를 세포벽 다른 구성성분에 결합시키는 부위가 (glycine의 target site) 변화되었다는 것을 보여준다. 세 균주를 LBG와 LBG-2%glycine/4mg INH에서 키웠을 때, 형질전환의 수율은 LBG-glycine/INH에서 키운 균체를 LBG에서 키운 균체와 비교시 100 (AS019) - 1,000 (MLB133)의 증가되었으며, 이러한 결과는 세표표면구조가 형질전환의 수율을 결정하는 요인이 된다는 것을 보여준다. 유사한 결과는 ATCC130332와 두 mutants strains, RM3 and RM4에서 관찰되었다. 세 균주들 역시, LBG-glycine/INH에서 배양도니 균주가 LBG에서 배양된 균주보다 형질전환의 수율이 10-100 증가되었다. 특이하게도, RM3와 RM4의 경우에는 형질전환 수율이 DNA source에 무관하게 거의 같게 나타났다. 두 번째로, corynebacteria 균체내에 존재하는 제한효소의 인지부위를 확인하기 위하여 제한효소와 동일한 염기서열을 인식하는 methylase의 활성을 조사하였다. methylase의 활성은 DNA를 통하여 확인할 수 있으므로, Escherichia coli와 corynebacteria의 shuttle vector인 pCSL17를 사용하였다. C. glutamicum에서 추출한 plasmid DNA (pCSL17)를 다양한 genetic backgrounds를 가지는 E. coli strains로 형질전환시 McrBC+<위첨자+입력불가> 균주가 McrBC-<위첨자-입력불가> 균주보다 훨씬 낮은 수율을 보였으며, 이것은 C. glutamicum DNA가 cytidine base에서 methylation되어 있다는 것이다. HPLC를 이용한 C. glutamicum DNA의 분석에서도 다량의 methylated cytidine이 나타났는데 반하여, methylated adenosine는 거의 나타나지 않았다. 보다 확실한 결과를 얻기 위하여, DNA를 다양한 제한효소로 처리하였다. 많은 제한효소는 인지부위내의 특정한 부위가 methlation되어 있으면, 확성을 나타내지 못하는데, C. glutamicum와 B. flavum에서 유래된 DNA는 제한효소인 HaeⅢ, Fnu4HI에 의해서 특정한 cytidine이 절단되지 않았다. 이러한 결과를 바탕으로 C. glutamicum와 B. flavum DNA에서는 GC(G/C)GC가 제한효소에 의해 인지되는 부위이고, 첫 번째 cytidine이 methylation되어있다는 것이 DNA sequencing에 의해 확인되었다. The bacteriophage λO protein localizes the initiation of replication to a unique sequence, ori λ through specific protein-DNA and protein-protein interactions. Conformational changes at ori λ introduced by O protein binding have been reported and their roles have been implicated in the initiation of λ DNA replication. In our studies, we focused on detailed structural basis of the formation of the O protein-ori λ complex(O-some). This work was divided into five Chapters including a general introduction given in Chapter 1, a brief review of genetic, biochemical, and structural data for understanding the mechanism of the initiation of λ DNA replication. As shown in Chapter 2, we found that the O protein exists as a dimer and demonstrated that the active DNA binding species is also a dimer. Dimerization and sequence-specific DNA recognition are specifically mediated through the amino-terminal half of O(O1-162(아래첨자 1-162입력불가)). The binding affinity of O for a single copy of its 19 bp recognition sequence was 2-3 nM. We also found that the O-some is composed of 4 dimers of O and ori λ DNA, which contains four 19 bp direct repeat recognition sites, i, e., a dimer of O is bound to each repeat(iteron). Moreover, we found that only the amino-terminal DNA binding domain is required for formation of the O-some. To investigate the structural basis for the unique properties of O protein, we generated a number of carboxy-terminal and internal and internal deletion mutants of O. Experiments with purified mutant proteins, as shown in Chapter 3, indicated that (ⅰ) the deletion mutant retaining amino acid residues 19-110 is the smallest O protein species that can both bind to DNA and form a dimer, (ⅱ) the affinities of all mutant proteins for a single iteron are almost the same, ranging from 2 to 4 nM; (ⅲ) the portion of O that is responsible for dimerization is located between amino acid residues 19 and 85; (ⅳ) the carboxy-terminal domain (O 156-299(아래첨자 156-299입력불가)) is a monomeric species that does not recognize specific DNA sequences but instead, bind non-specifically to duplex DNA; (ⅴ) the linker joining the two structural domains is not required for O function, but its coding sequence of DNA contains several recognition sites for O protein (ori λ); and (ⅵ) a deletion! m! utant missing the amino-terminal portion of the carboxyl-terminal domain is still comparably active in the in vitro λdv replication assay. In Chapter 4, the structural basis of the O protein-DNA complex was studied in detail. Hydroxy radical footprinting was employed to obtain the high resolution structural information about the contacts between the protein and the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA. The missing nucleoside experiment allowed us to identify energetically important base moieties that may be in contact with bound O protein. Quantitation of the extent of O-mediated DNA bending indicated that O induces a relatively sharp bend in an individual recognition sequence of 85。 ±5。 . Measurement of the O-induced topological change indicated that a region of DNA or specifically ori λis wrapped around the O protein core in a left-handed fashion with a linking number change of 0.7±0.1 turn. In Chapter 5, we present direct evidence that the O protein also has the capacity to interact with single-stranded DNA, the first such interaction discovered among prokaryotic origin-binding proteins. The implication of this dual DNA binding specificity of O for the formation of the unwound structure at the A/T-rich region of ori λ is dis cussed. The addition of the λP-DnaB comple x to the O-some produces a new nucleoprotein species with a super-shift in migration. The presence of P and DnaB reduces significantly the amount of O required for binding to single-stranded DNA. Based on these results, we propose a detailed model for sequential structural changes in ori λ as a consequence of O binding to the origin of λreplication.