Law, power, and argumentation: The United Nations Charter and uses of armed force by major powers since 1945

Westra, Joel H The University of Chicago 2004 해외박사(DDOD)

Although the UN Charter prohibits "the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state," there have been numerous incidents in which the major powers (at least arguably) violated this prohibition. Given the frequency of such incidents, how (if at all) does the Charter's prohibition of force function as a restraint upon the actions of the major powers?. This dissertation argues that the prohibition is, in effect, a contractual agreement between the major powers and less powerful states not to use armed force to alter or to overturn the existing, post-World War II international order. As a legal instrument, it creates an expectation of compliance. Thus, when using armed force, major powers offer legal arguments to account for the discrepancy between this expectation and their actions and thereby reduce the likelihood of resistance from states that might otherwise perceive the actions as threatening to the existing order and to their relative power positions within that order. Such accounts are persuasive if states conclude that the arguments containing them represent the major powers' actual understandings of law and their actions and if the claims comprising those arguments are sufficiently restrictive to provide a basis for inferring future restraint. Persuasive accounts provide credible signals of commitment to the existing order because of the indirect costs accrued by the major powers that offer them. They reduce the range actions that the major powers may take without contradicting their previous claims and thereby undermining the basis from which other states infer future restraint. To maintain the persuasiveness of these accounts, major powers must alter the manner and timing of their military actions or else engage in strategies of denial or rhetorical evasion. The prohibition of force thus operates through interplay among power, interests, and ideas and among institutions, discourse, and state behavior. This dissertation explores relationships among these important concepts, shedding light on the mechanism by which the prohibition of force functions and providing a basis from which to assess the continued salience of the UN Charter system.

An enviro-economic analysis of potential policy instruments targeting phosphorus nonpoint pollution

Westra, John Verlyn University of Minnesota 2001 해외박사(DDOD)

The state of Minnesota seeks to reduce phosphorus loading to the Minnesota River by 40% from levels estimated in the 1980's. I hypothesized potential policies for reducing pollution that targeted specific practices or regions would be no worse than policies requiring proportional reductions in every region. Using the Le Sueur River watershed as an example, I analyzed the cost-effectiveness of nonpoint pollution reduction policies (pollution standard, phosphorus effluent tax, conventional tillage tax, and phosphorus fertilizer tax). With a biophysical process model (ADAPT), I simulated systems representative of those producers currently use. Current systems were corn-soybean rotations under various tillage and nutrient management practices. Also simulated were alternative systems for reducing phosphorus loading (using conservation tillage, reducing phosphorus input levels, and incorporating fertilizer applications). For each system, I linked phosphorus loss estimates with production costs, risk premiums, net returns, and location within the watershed to create a nonlinear, positive mathematical programming model. This enviro-economic model was used to analyze the policies mentioned above. Under the pollution standard, targeted and nontargeted strategies reduced agricultural nonpoint phosphorus pollution by 40%. Nonetheless, the nontargeted strategy affected the watershed more adversely than the strategy targeting practices or regions. With targeting, annual net farm income for the watershed declined by $2.8 million (5% loss) from $53 million. Income declined by $11.4 million (21% loss) annually with a nontargeted strategy. The phosphorus effluent tax had to rise to $162 per pound before estimated loading was reduced by 40% from base-year levels. At this tax rate, watershed farm income declined by $14 million (25% decline) and generated tax revenues of $11 million. Neither a $35 per acre conventional tillage tax nor a 900% phosphorus fertilizer tax achieved a 40% reduction in phosphorus loading. All policies examined caused some land retirement. These results indicated that strategically targeting particular regions or practices in a watershed to reduce agricultural nonpoint phosphorus pollution is more cost-effective than requiring all farmers and land to adapt. Cost-savings from targeting become evident when critical factors for mitigating nonpoint pollution are represented in an enviro-economic model.

Genomic mosaicism in the human brain

Westra, Jurjen Willem University of California, San Diego 2008 해외박사(DDOD)

The human brain is the most complicated and complex organ in the human body, responsible for not only regulating basic physiological processes such as metabolism and sensation, but also higher cognitive functions such as learning and emotion. As with all other organs of the human body, this complexity in function is built upon the framework of interconnected cells, whose individual activity/function is driven by gene transcription and protein expression. Contemporary models on brain function have been based on the static assumption that cells of the central nervous system operate under constant and non-varying genomes (i.e. that all brain cells contain two copies of each autosome and two sex chromosomes). The body of work contained in this dissertation challenges this notion, and describes the inherently mosaic composition individual cells in the human brain at the genomic level. This dissertation describes the experimental tools used to uncover DNA content variation (DCV) in the mouse and human brain, identifies a novel brain region which exhibits one type of DCV (aneuploid mosaicism), clarifies a cell-cycle based neurodegenerative model of Alzheimer's disease, and characterizes DCV in the normal human brain. The importance of DCV for basic neuroscience is underscored by the observation that DCV changes are associated in a region specific manner in neurodegenerative disease, notably Alzheimer's disease.

Primary Caregiver Attitudes and Counseling Centers in High Poverty Elementary Schools

Westra, Emma C Western Michigan University ProQuest Dissertations 2022 해외박사(DDOD)

Children living in poverty are in high need of mental health services, yet do not receive them (Allegria et al., 2010; Hodgkinson et al., 2017) due to barriers including cost of services, inaccessible location, and transportation issues (Allegria et al., 2015). Additionally, primary caregivers are important gatekeepers for children receiving mental health services (Reardon et al., 2017). While the presence of counseling centers in elementary schools can reduce multiple barriers children living in high poverty areas experience, it is unknown if primary caregivers would select these services for their children. The present study used quantitative analysis to explore hypotheses regarding the relationship between primary caregivers’ help-seeking attitudes, help-seeking intentions, felt stigmatization, and perception of child’s problems. Eighty-one participants were recruited from three Midwest elementary public schools. The measures used in the study included a demographic questionnaire, previous mental health experience questionnaire, the Parental Attitudes Toward Psychological Services Inventory (PATSI; Turner, 2012), and the Brief Problem Monitor–Parent form for Ages 6–18 (BPM-P;Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001). Primary analyses were conducted using multiple t tests and linear regression.Results of this study indicate that primary caregivers, who have previously received mental health services, are more likely to consider mental health services for their children. Findings also support primary caregivers seeking mental health services for their children if the child is engaging in external behaviors, e.g., fighting, yelling, not following directions vsinternalizing behaviors, e.g., symptoms of worrying, anxiety, depression. The findings of this study may be helpful for mental health professionals who work within schools, professionals planning to increasing counseling centers in schools, and professionals interested in increasing community engagement. Results of the study should also be incorporated within curricula that prepare mental health professionals and other school staff for work in schools.

Marxist theory and creative thinking about post-capitalist alternatives : A Japanese intervention

웨스트라, 리차드 Queen's University 2000 국내박사