True West에 나타난 진짜와 가짜 사이에서

윤소영(Yoon So-young) 한국현대영미드라마학회 2011 현대영미드라마 Vol.24 No.2

True West(1980), written by Sam Shepard, belongs to his trilogy, including Curse of the Starving Class(1976) and Buried Child(1978). In this play, Lee and Austin are two sons of a father who does not appear on the stage. The relationship between father and two sons is a recurrent theme found in many American plays. The two sons are alter egos of their father. In True West, Lee is a desert rat whereas Austin is a successful writer in Hollywood. Absent father theme is a salient leitmotif among some representative American plays since this theme refers to malfunction and disintegration of a family where fathers left for their family, searching for their oppressed masculinity. Struggle and conflict between a father and two sons shows ambivalent feelings of complaints about and longing for their father. In this respect, bereft two sons search for and trace their father’s path. The producer, Saul Kimmer, chose Lee’s script rather than Austin’s because Lee’s endorses its authenticity. Lee’s authentic story is about the West which is real as told by Lee. Moreover, Kimmer’s decision of degrading Austin as a ghost writer seems to guarantee commercial success in the Hollywood mass culture. The West and his father’s false teeth are of significance in that both of them provide the sons with lack of lack. Their conflict is accelerated when they search for the authenticity of the West, which is written by ghost writer Austin based on the story produced by Lee. More specifically, Austin’s lack of experiencing to live in the West triggers to move towards the West. In particular, the West is an idealistic land where their father exists so that his sons would like to follow their father in order to ensure their masculinity. In so doing, they consume the image of the West since it is the very place where their father left for them and draws their imagination. As an imaginative place for the American Dream, the West is a simulacre for it continues to produce just false images. Also, the signifier, “the West” itself, is shown through the last scene, implying a variety of signifieds without ending. The final scene of confronting each other represents a still and eternal image of coyotes in the desert field, which is not supposed to end.

朝鮮文人들의 西域認識

심호남 한국문화융합학회 2015 문화와 융합 Vol.37 No.2

This study is the result of considering the matter of how the literary men of Joseon Dynasty perceived the West and its people. Primarily, there is a need to organize the basic concept of the West in order to apprehend the recognition toward the West. According to the result of searching through the Annals of Joseon Dynasty, which is a historical book representing the Joseon Dynasty, the word ‘The West’ have two different meanings. First, it is understood as the cradleland of Buddhism. Secondly, the word refers to the countries bordering on Western China. When we refer to ‘the West’ as the cradleland of China, it is common for us to think of negative recognitions toward China, but when we refer to the nations near the west region of China, our perception toward the word is positive. Due to the geographical features, the writers of Joseon Dynasty first encountered the Western China and its people through indirect experience, not by direct experience. This means that Joseon writers’ perception toward the Western China was greatly influenced by the immense filter called, ‘China’. Despite this fact, Joseon writers comprehended the geographical factors of the Western China relatively precisely. It is proved by the map which was made during the period of King Tae-Jong, which is comparatively early to know about foreign nations. Nevertheless, even though they perceived the geographical information accurately, the literary men of Joseon failed to take an objective view toward the West due to the deeply rooted Sino centrism which was prevalent in Joseon culture. However, we can still tell that they recognized the West in terms of civilization. The main factor of this cognizance change was the introduction of the World map. The maps which were spread through western missionaries, had is intention on resolving the problem of severe Sino centrism in the Joseon Dynasty era. Since then, western civilization which were conveyed through both direct and indirect contact made literary men of Joseon Dynasty to perceive the West as an enlightened and mysterious world. The unique thing is that, the missionaries who were dispatched to China from the West were perceived positively by the Joseon writers, despite the fact that the Joseon Dynasty persecuted and oppressed Catholicism in earlier period. The members of the missionary such as Matteo Ricci, Rodriguez, and Giulio Aleni receive a favorable evaluation and appears in historical records as a positive figure in Korea. This is viewed as a result of Matteo Ricci actively employing and using the highly-advanced scientific technology of the West. Though, there also existed negative aspects toward the west in terms of portions which rejected or did not fit with the concept of Confucianism of Joseon Dynasty.

옌푸(嚴復)의 근대성 인식

양일모 ( Il Mo Yang ) 東洋哲學硏究會 2007 東洋哲學硏究 Vol.52 No.-

이 글은 중국의 전통과 근대를 함께 살았던 옌푸라는 한 지식인의 사고 과정을 통해 중국의 근대성 문제를 조명해 보고자 한다. 그는 누구보다도 더 열심히 서양을 관찰하고 학습하고 체험했다. 중국에 돌아와서는 서양의 원리와 가치를 토대로 중국 사회를 분석하고 비판했다. 만년에는 공자를 존경하고 유교 경전의 강독을 주창하기도 하였다. 그의 삶은 서양의 원리를 발견하고, 서양의 원리 속에 감추어진 문제를 인식하고, 중국의 가치를 발견해가는 과정이었다. 이러한 원리와 가치를 찾아 고뇌하는 과정이야말로 그가 추구했던 중국의 근대성이라고 규정하고자 한다. 옌푸는 언론 활동에 처음으로 등장하면서 서양의 자유와 민주에 처음으로 감명을 받았던 시기에도 서양 사회에 문제가 있다는 사실을 외면한 것이 아니었다. 그러면서도 자유, 민주, 진보, 과학, 공공성 등 서양의 학문적 성과로 이루어진 진리를 신봉했다. 제1차 세계대전이라는 미증유의 전쟁을 목도하면서 그는 서양의 원리와 학문에 깊은 실망감을 드러냈다. 그리고 반사 작용으로 중국의 학문에 관심을 더 많이 기울였다. 분명 옌푸 연구자들이 말한 대로 그는 초기의 급진적 관점에서 보수적인 관점으로 변했다. 그만이 변한 것이 아니라 중국 사회도 변했고, 서양 사회도 변했다. 중국에서는 옌푸보다 더 급진적인 서구주의자들이 등장했고, 서양에서는 자본주의의 문제점이 날로 심각해지고 있었다. 옌푸에게 서양은 사상적 모범이며 원리였다. 중국보다 앞서 있었기 때문에 모범이 되었고, 중국보다 근대문명의 폐해가 먼저 나타났다는 점에서도 모범이었다. 서양 문명에 대한 반사작용으로 유교가 떠오르기도 했다. 그러나 그는 유교를 서양 문명의 대안으로 간주하지는 않았다. 그는 중국인의 아이덴티티는 유교의 경전 속에 있다고 보았다. 한편 서양 사회가 문제를 야기해도 서양의 학문은 여전히 그의 원리였다. 그에게 중요한 것은 원리의 진리성이었으며, 중국과 서양은 지리적으로 구획된 세계는 아니었다. This paper aims to analyze Chinese modernity by way of Yanfu`s experience of the West, who lived the tradition and a modern time of China from late 19th to early 20th. He observed, studied and experienced the West more eagerly than anybody else. After returning to China from studying in England, he analyzed Chinese society with base of principle and value of the West. Late in his life, he respected Confucius and advocated to read the classical canon. He discovered the principle of the West, and recognized the problem immanent in it, finally found the value of China again. This paper will consider a process of Chinese intellectual`s agonies to search for the value of the West as a distinguishing feature of Chinese modernity. Early Yanfu is not only impressed in freedom and democracy of the western society, but as well not to look away a problem hidden in the West. Nevertheless, he believed truth, freedom, democracy, progress, science and the public spirit etc. accomplished with scholastic result of West. After watching the first world war, he felt disappointment in the principle of the West. And in reflex action he took an interest in study of Chinese classics. It is clear to say that in late time he changed his mind form a radical viewpoint of early times to a conservative, as many research pointed. Not only he changed, but the Chinese, the western society also was changed. In China more radical intellectuals appeared, In West capitalism day by day showed up many serious social problems. In Yanfu, the West was ideological model and a principle in his life. It became the model, first because the west went ahead of China, secondly because the evil of western modern civilization appeared in advance. Compared to Western civilization, Confucianism was to be re-evaluated. But Yanfu didn`t regard it as the alternative of Western civilization. He tried to find Chinese identity in Confucianism. On the other hand, though the west revealed a side effect of modern society, he never refused the utility of western scholarship founded in science. The fact that it is important was truth of principle. In him, China and the West was not the world which is divided geographically.

마크 트웨인의 초기 작품들에 나타난 서부와 식민성/탈식민성의 문제

성경준 ( Kyung Jun Sung ) 근대 영미소설 학회 2005 근대 영미소설 Vol.12 No.2

This essay aims to examine the representation of the West and coloniality/ postcoloniality in Mark Twain`s early works, especially Roughing It(1872) and The Gilded Age(1873). My article ultimately shows that Twain`s attitude toward the West is ambivalent and complicated. He is contained in his contemporary hegemonic discourses on the West, but, on the other hand, he deconstructs them and exhibits the postcoloniality of the West. In Roughing It. the coloniality of the West is revealed in his descriptions of the backwardness of this region and the fact that the social, economical and political system of the West is dominated by that of the East. Twain`s containment in the dominant discourse is evident in his portrayals of violence and lawlessness of this region. In The Gilded Age the coloniality of the West is demonstrated by the destinies and defeats of westerners like Colonel Sellers and Laura. The politics and economics of the West is completely controlled by those of the East. In spite of the coloniality of the West, Twain also represents the postcoloniality of the West. In Roughing It. Twain especially demonstrates the postcolonialty of the West in the language and humor of this region, as evidenced by the conversation between Scotty and the eastern pastor. In The Gilded Age Colonel Sellers`s language and humor also show western potential which overcomes eastern rule.

한국신문의 아시아와 서구에 대한 보도양상의 차이와 이유 연구

오대영(Day-Young Oh) 한국언론정보학회 2013 한국언론정보학보 Vol.61 No.1

21세기 들어 아시아가 빠르게 발전하고 있다. 한국과 아시아 국가 사이에 인적, 물적 교류도 크게 늘고, 한국이 다문화사회로 접어들면서 아시아에 대한 우리 국민들의 올바른 이해가 더욱 중요해졌다. 이를 위해서는 한국신문의 아시아에 대한 보도양상이 중요하다는 문제의식에서 조선일보, 동아일보, 한겨레신문, 경향신문 등 4개 신문이 2011년에 보도한 1786개의 국제뉴스 내용을 분석해서 아시아와 서구에 대한 보도양상의 차이와 이유를 알아봤다. 보도량에서는 아시아(45.7%)보다 서구(54.3%)뉴스가 많았다. 아시아 뉴스에서는 부정적인 뉴스가 가장 많았으나, 서구뉴스에서는 부정적인 뉴스가 가장 적고 중립적 또는 긍정적인 뉴스가 가장 많아 한국신문은 아시아보다 서구에 대해 긍정적인 보도태도를 보였다. 국제뉴스를 도덕ㆍ정의, 정치, 경제ㆍ과학, 사회, 외교ㆍ국방, 인간적 흥미, 인물 등 7개의 주제로 분류했다. 주제별 보도량을 보면 아시아에 대해서는 외교ㆍ국방, 도덕ㆍ정의, 정치 등 경성기사를 많이 보도했다. 서구에 대해서는 경성기사 이외에 인간적 흥미, 인물 등 연성기사도 많이 보도해 아시아보다는 다양한 뉴스를 전달했다. 경성기사에서는 부정적인 태도가 가장 많았고, 연성기사에서는 긍정 또는 중립적인 태도가 가장 많았다. 그 결과 한국신문의 국제뉴스는 아시아에 대해 부정적이고, 서구에 대해 긍정적인 보도태도를 나타내게 됐다. 미디어, 정부, 민간조직, 개인, 자료 등 5개의 핵심 정보원 가운데 미디어만이 서구와 아시아에 대한 보도태도의 차이에 영향을 주고 있었다. 아시아 미디어 정보원은 서구 미디어보다 아시아에 대해 긍정적인 보도를 많이 했다. 서구 미디어 정보원은 아시아에 대해서는 부정적, 서구에 대해서는 중립적인 보도를 많이 했다. 그런데 한국신문은 동아시아를 제외한 지역의 뉴스에서는 전적으로 서구미디어를 핵심 정보원으로 활용했다. 이에 따라 한국신문의 국제뉴스는 서구중심적이 되고, 아시아에 더 부정적인 보도를 많이 하게 되었다. 한국신문의 서구와 아시아에 대한 보도양상은 많이 보도한 주제와 외국 미디어 정보원 의존 형태에 따라 달라졌다. 한국신문은 특파원 등을 활용한 직접 취재, 인터넷을 이용한 아시아 매체활용 확대 등으로 아시아에 대해 다양한 뉴스를 전달해야 한다는 개선방안을 제시했다. Asia is developing rapidly in 21st century. Human and material exchanges between Korea and Asian countries have greatly increased. Korea entered the multicultural society. It became important for Korean people to understand Asia more correctively. Korean media can play a key role for this. In this point, I analyzed 1786 news contents reported in 2011 by four Korean newspapers(Chosun Ilbo, Dong-A Ilbo, Hankyoreh newspaper, Kyungh Kyunghyang Daily News), to see differences of Asia and West news aspect and its reason, focusing on news topic, amount of news, news tone and foreign media sources. In amount of news, the percent of West(54.3%) was higher than that of Asia news(45.7%). In news tone, negative news were the most in Asia news, but the least in West news. Korean newspaper showed more positive attitude to West than Asia. 1786 news were classified into seven topics(morality and justice, politics, economics and science, society, diplomacy and national defense, human interest, people). In news amount of seven topics, Korean newspapers reported hard news like morality and justice more than soft news like human interest about Asia. However they reported many soft news about West besides hard news. In news topics and tone, hard news showed negative tone most and soft news showed neutral or positive tone most. As a result, Korean news showed the negative attitude to Asia and the positive to West. Among five main sources(media, government, private organization, individual and material), only media source affected the differences of news attitude to Asia and West. Asia media source took the more positive attitude to Asia than West. West media took the negative attitude to Asia most and the neutral attitude to West most. Korean newspapers used West media as main sources in the news of all areas except East Asia. As a result, Korean newspapers showed the West-centered-attitude and reported the negative news more than neutral and positive about Asia. It was suggested that Korean newspapers had better increase Asia news in diverse spheres by the direct reporting of the correspondent and the more use of Asia media through the internet.

《闢衛新編》 의 편찬과 尹宗儀의 서양 인식

최보윤(Choi Bo Yun) 한국교회사연구소 2008 敎會史硏究 Vol.0 No.30

Chosun went through a big change and faced a great threat called "The West". Frequent appearances of western ships, fast spread of Catholicism, and the news about the Opium War(阿片戰爭, 1839) in China made the fear grow bigger. Some part of Chosun started to realizethat their safety would not be secured anymore under the concept, 'China is the center of the universe'. Yoon Jong-Eui(尹宗儀, 1805-1886)'s Byuk-Wi-Shin-Pyun(闢衛新編) was one of the solutions presented for Chosun to deal with the situations it was in. He started to write this book in 1840's before he went into the government service and finished in 1880's. It shows his opinion on "Who the Westerners are" and "How to deal with them". Byuk-Wi-Shin-Pyun was written based on the data Yoon collected from some references about world geography and other intellectuals' articles on the 'maritime defense(海防)' and 'wickedness expulsion(斥邪)'. Most of his references were from the books and articles from Chung(Qing, 淸); the main references used in the beginning of the writing were Myung-Sa(明史) and Kyung-Se-Moon-Pyun(經世文編). He gave people better understanding on Catholicism, wickedness expulsion against it, and the western world. However, the references he used had the limitation of inaccuracy because they were from China and had the negative view toward western world; moreover, those did not contain any new information. Later this limitation was complemented by newly collected data and references. Yoon's point of view on The West changed slowly as he read Hae-Kook-Do-Ji (海國圖志) and Young-Hwan-Ji-Ryak(瀛環志略) and wrote the second edition of Byuk-Wi-Shin-Pyun around 1852. Through newly collected data and references he learned more details about The Westand the fear about their possible attack grew even bigger. It led him to look for more practical means of maritime defense; the most noticeable one was "defeating The West by learning their strength(師夷制夷)". He came up with this idea based on the concept that Chinese technology was the origin of that of The West and the opinion of Wee Won(魏源), the writer of Hae-Kook-Do-Ji had a great effect as well. Yoon did not agree to Won's idea of entering into a treaty with The West and starring a commerce trade however, it was innovative to learn the strength of The West beyond to know who they were. Yoon wrote Byuk-Wi-Shin-Pyun as a part of his effort to wisely confront the change of the view of the world. However, it did not mean that he fully accepted the new wave; bur he wanted to preserve existing view as much as possible at the same time effectively deal with the new wave. Therefore, he suggested to gather detailed information on the western circumstances, but to keep carrying out the ideological expulsion. That was because he was one of the Sung Confucianists and agreed to aggressive defending toward attack of The West. However, his theory of wickedness expulsion was different from that of other Confucians'. Others made their theory based on the existing and limited Confucianism only whereas he tried to widen his understanding on the western world and Catholicism first through collecting diverse information. He did so because he thought The West needed to be correctly understood and learned to be wisely dealt with. This enabled him to know more than anyone else about The West, the relationship between their overseas trade and the spread of the Catholicism, and their attack to make more colonies. Even though he suggested the wickedness expulsion, he not only clarified Sung Confucianism but also tried to learn more about the western world. This makes his theory different from that of Wijeong-Chuksa(衛正斥邪論) and his effort to learn more about The West and accepting their culture opened the door for the enlightenment group (開化派) to come into out history.

동방정책을 추진하던 독일연방공화국 (서독)의 시각에서 본 한국의남·북관계 1969-72

노명환 한국외국어대학교 국제지역연구센터 2008 국제지역연구 Vol.11 No.4

The West Germany (FRG) was intensely interested in the Korean South-North relations, especially at the end of 1960's into the early 1970's. Their prime motivation was the belief that they could glean valuable insight for Ostpolitik from the Korean case. In particular, the West German government estimated that the Red Cross talks and the Joint Communiqué of July 4, 1972, contributed to easing tensions in East Asia in the most spectacular way. Understandably it saw a fruitful comparison in the moves towards détente on the Korean peninsula in the northeast Asian geopolitical context and the broadly European dimension of Ostpolitik. In consequence the West German government was assured that its constructive policy orientation of Ostpolitik was the right one to have championed. According to West Germany the fundamental difference between the German West-East relations and Korean South-North relations from the perspective of the condition of dialogues lay in the fact that, politically speaking, West Germany was prepared to endorse East Germany as a state in the framework of the theory of the "two states in a nation", while for the two Korean governments such mutual recognition was absolutely not on their respective policy agendas. The German concern with the war crime during the Second World War and the strong will of West Germany to participate in post-WWII European cooperation and eventually pan-European supranationalism is all understandable even today. East Germany, alternatively, aimed to establish an independent sovereign state under the tutelage of the Soviet Union. In contrast again nationalism predominated as the central political value in Korea especially after the liberation from Japanese Colonial rule. Dual nationalisms and the distant goal of unification differently conceived still - are the paramount goals in both South and North Korea. 동과 서로 분단된 국가로서 1960년대 말 1970년대 초 동방정책을 실시하고 있던 서독이 남북으로 분단된 남한의 통일정책과 남북관계를 어떻게 바라보았는가? 하는 문제제기가 본 논문의 핵심 주제이다. 이 연구를 위해 필자는 주한 서독 대사관의 관련 당시 기록들을 분석하였다. 초국가주의에 눈을 뜬 서독은 국가주의에 의거한 남과 북의 통일정책을 주시했으며 평화통일을 지향한다는 측면에서 동방정책의 보편성을 확인하고 자 하였다. 주변 강대국들이 한국의 남북관계에 어떠한 영향을 미치는가 하는 측면을 자신의 상황과 비교하면서 관찰·분석하였다.

다시 쓰는 서부 이야기: 월터 반 틸버그 클라크(Walter Van Tilburg Clark)의 『만곡부 사건』(The Ox-Bow Incident)

이승은 ( Seung Eun Lee ) 한국영미문화학회 2009 영미문화 Vol.9 No.3

The West in American history and society has been served as an official American ideology since the significance of the West has been repeatedly invoked as the unifying force of American people in times of national crisis. The West has been believed as the significant place in which the essential Americanness such as self-reliance, independence, and individualism was formed and the precious values for healing the problems of American society were imbedded. However, with the introduction of the new Western discourse, the established beliefs of the West have been turned out to be a fictitious myth. In a word, the history of the West was revealed to be the violent history of conquering the racial other. Similarly, in the field of the Western literature and film there has been a revisionist movement which deconstructs the myth of the West and discloses the violence of the Western society. This essay aims to reread the novel The Ox-Box Incident from the viewpoints of the new Western discourse. The Ox-Bow Incident has been evaluated as one of the best Western novels so far. Most of critical views of this work have been focused on its well-made plot and its value as the insightful probing of the human nature. However, a new Western discourse approach leads to illuminate the new crucial significance of the work as a revisionist Western novel. The author seems to recreate the traditional Western novel by employing the conventional cowboy characters and the plot of the popular Western novel such as cow rustling and a lynching party to catch cow rustlers. However, the two main cowboy characters in this work are described to be ceaselessly in fear of not being accepted by the town men, instead of being self-reliant and determined strong men. Moreover, the attention is paid to describe the narrow-mindedness and exclusivism of the Western town and reveal the violence of lynching party as an irrational mob. In this novel the West is no longer a positive place in which self-reliant and heroic Western men can fulfill their sense of justice and their individual values as described in the traditional Western novels or films. In the work of Clark, the West turns out to be a violent place in which the false values of the irrational mob culture are prevailing. Thus The Ox-Box Incident can be evaluated as the forerunner of the revisionist Western novel in that it presents a real West by casting doubts on the myth of the West and reveals its cruel and violent reality.

동서양의 만남과 미술의 교류

金理那(Kim Lena) 미술사연구회 2009 미술사연구 Vol.- No.23

The geographical boundaries for the meetings of the East and the West were decided by several historical events. Since ancient times, the exchange between the West and East Asian came in various forms via diverse routes. It started with the animal-style arts of nomads who traveled the Steppe route across the Eurasian continent. Then a renewed contacts was initiated by the expedition of Alexander the Great to the East which met with the expansion of the territory by Han China to the west, resulting the opening of the silk road. Through this road Buddhist culture and art forms were introduced to East Asia and active trading between the western regions, referring generally West Asia, brought about exotic goods and foreign merchants to China. As a esult, the Silk Road eventually connected X’ian China with the Mediterranean area for several centuries. In the 7th century, Islamic power grew stronger and took over most of the area that Alexander the Great had conquered, and but the East-West trade routes still flourished via silk road. Gradually Arabs became experts in sea trade route connecting Mediterranean to Indian Ocean and to south China. In the eleventh century in response to the Islamic siege of Jerusalem brought about the launching of the Crusades and contributed to the cultural exchange between the West and East thus extending its boundaries. About the same time, Genghis Khan’s invasion of Islamic world and Eastern Europe occurred and there was the increased flow of cultural exchange to another level connecting Europe and Asia. The concept of“the West”went beyond the borders of West Asia but expanded to include Europe. Another dynamic force behind trade was the experience and development of scientific knowledge of the Arabs that came from their maritime activities. Active sea trading were carried out connecting West and East and the discovery of the New World and further explorations of the sea in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries with the development of navigational technology allowed circumnavigation. The discovery of diverse sea routes further facilitated the meeting of the European continent and Asian countries. From the end of the sixteenth century onward, Jesuit priests arrived at China and Japan spreading the Christian faith. Thereafter, various genres of art such as painting, architecture, ceramics and handicrafts as well as scientific knowledge began to reflect the mutual influences of the West and the East. Western painting was introduced to China and Japan and strongly influenced the art forms of the Asian countries. And the Chinese and Japanese arts were adapted to European tastes representing arts of chinoiserie in the eighteenth century and the japonisme of the nineteenth century in European culture. Beginning with the twenties century onward, however, the exchange of Eastern and Western art went beyond their boundaries and reached to the stage of globalism.

원나라 常德의 서역 使行記— 劉郁 ≪西使記≫ 해제 및 역주

정민경 중국어문연구회 2020 中國語文論叢 Vol.0 No.97

Liu Yu’s Record of Mission to the West is a story of Chang De visit to Hulagu, who went to conquer the West. In the ninth year of Möngke Khan(1259), the levy commissioner Chang De accepted the order that Möngke Khan leave for the West, met Hulagu in person and return to the Yuan Dynasty in 14 months. After he return, he narrated his journey, and the historical events about Hulagu’s expending to the West, geographical condition, customs, and religions of Western countries that he had seen or heard. His report was written down by Liu Yu as Record of a Mission to the West. His report is divided into two parts, the first part of which describes the journey of Chang De to the west, and the second part of the Hulagu how conquered Western countries. It not only describes the journey but also record the climate, products, vegetation, customs, religion and architecture of the Western countries. So his report provides an important resource for studying the history of the Yuan dynasty, Central Asia, West Asia, and the West. This paper is based on Chen Dezhi’s Commentary on Record of Chang De’s Mission to the West, translated with reference to the Wei Yuan’s Hai-Guo-Tu-Zhi and Bretschneider’s Mediaeval researches from eastern Asiatic sources.