도급계약에서의 계약이행보증금의 성질에 관한 판례의 검토

홍성재(Hong, Sung Jae) 전북대학교 법학연구소 2015 法學硏究 Vol.43 No.-

이 글에서는 다양한 목적을 가지고 행해지는 위약금 약정의 실태를 반영하기 위해서는 위약금 개념을 보다 유연하게 해석할 필요가 있는 것으로 보았다. 즉, 위약금에는 그 감액이 인정되는 손해배상액의 예정과 그것이 인정되지 않는 위약벌의 성질을 가진 것이 있음은 물론이고, 그 밖에 특수한 손해배상액의 예정이라든가 손해의 담보의 성질을 가진 위약금, 또는 손해배상액의 예정과 위약벌을 겸유하는 위약금의 유형이 있을 수 있다고 보았다. 물론 민법은 특별한 사정이 없는 한 위약금을 손해배상액의 예정으로 추정한다. 이러한 입장은 도급계약의 경우, 계약이행보증금에 관한 판례의 검토를 통해서 확인 되었다. 첫째, 귀속약정이 없는 계약이행보증금은 계약금의 성질을 가진다. 따라서 그 보증금만 지급한 상태에서는 민법 제565조에 따라 도급계약을 해제할 수 있다. 그리고 이 경우 계약이행보증금은 위약금으로 하기로 하는 특약이 없는 한 손해담보 내지 손해보증금의 성질을 겸유할 수 있다. 이 경우 도급인은 손해의 발생과 범위를 입증하여야 비로소 손해배상을 받을 수 있다. 둘째, 도급계약에서 그에 관한 귀속약정만 있는 계약이행보증금은 손해배상액의 예정의 성질을 가진다. 판례는 도급계약에서 계약이행보증금과 아울러 지체상금의 약정을 한 경우에도 그 보증금은 손해배상액의 예정의 성질을 가진 것으로 보고 있다. 이 경우 도급인은 초과손해의 배상을 받을 수는 없고, 오히려 법원은 계약이행보증금이 부당히 과다한 경우에는 그 보증금을 감액할 수 있다. 셋째, 계약이행보증금이 계약의 이행을 압박하고 위약하였을 때에는 사적인 제재를 가하는 것을 목적으로 교부된 경우에는 그것은 위약벌의 성질을 가진다. 즉, 도급계약에서 계약이행보증금의 귀속약정 외에 별도로 실손해 전부에 대한 배상을 인정하는 경우에 그렇다. 이 경우 법원은 계약이행보증금을 감액할 수 없고, 오히려 도급인은 실 손해 전부를 별도로 청구할 수 있다. 넷째, 도급계약에서 계약이행보증금의 귀속 외에 초과손해의 배상을 청구할 수 있는 것으로 정한 경우에, 그 계약이행보증금은 특수한 손해배상액의 예정(내지 손해담보)의 성질을 가질 수 있다. 이 경우 도급인은 계약이행보증금의 귀속 외에 초과손해를 입증하여 그 배상을 청구를 할 수 있다. 다섯째, 계약이행보증금은 손해배상액의 예정의 성질과 위약벌의 성질을 겸유하는 경우도 있다. 이 경우 계약이행보증금은 손해배상 기능을 가지는 손해배상액의 예정의 부분과 계약불이행에 대한 제재의 기능을 가진 위약벌의 부분으로 구분된다. In most cases, the agreement of cancellation charge is performed to compel the performance of contract, to simplify compensation for damage, or to lynch for breach of contract. In this thesis, the concept of cancellation charge is interpreted with more pliability to reflect the actual condition of contract. It means that cancelation charge can be admitted as not only a kind of liquidated damages with accepted reduction or penalty for breach of contract, but also a kind of security deposits, security damages, or both. Sure, it is presumed that a cancellation charge is a liquidated damages by article 398(4) of korean civil law, so a cancellation charge is a liquidated damages unless a specific agreement has been made between the parties. This view on cancellation charge is applied in the Supreme Court about the contract deposit in case of contract for work. First, without agreement reverted, the contract deposit has nature of down payment. In the situation where the only deposit is provided, the contract for work can be cancelled according to article 565 of korean civil law. Second, the contract deposit is considered as security deposits or security damages without specific agreement that contract deposit is regarded as cancellation charge. In this case, the orderer has responsibility to examine occurrence and range of damage to get security damage from contractor. Third, the contract deposit only with agreement reverted in contract work is admitted as liquidated damages. Also, with agreement of delay damage and contract deposit in contract work, the contract deposit has been considered as liquidated damages in the precedents. In this case, the orderer could not take fixed excess damages from the contractor, and the deposit can be reduced by courts when it is unfairly excessive. Forth, the contract deposit has nature of penalty for non-performance of contract when it is used to pressure performance of contract and to lynch the contractor in breach of contract. This case occurs when compensation of actual damage is admitted other than agreement reverted of contract deposit. On this occasion, Courts cannot reduced the contract deposit and the orderer can claim indemnification of actual damage separately. Fifth, the contract deposit is considered as specific liquidated damages or security damages with agreement that compensation of fixed excessive damages would be demanded besides reversion of contract deposit in contract work. The orderer can charge the contractor the compensation other than reversion of contract deposit by proving fixed excess damages. Sixth, the contract deposit has nature of both liquidated damages and penalty for breach of contract. In this case, the contract deposit is divided between liquidated damages for compensation of damages and penalty for breach of contract to restrain defaults on contract.

Preparation and Electrochemical Properties of Carbon Cryogel for Supercapacitor

송민섭,남산,오영제 한국세라믹학회 2008 한국세라믹학회지 Vol.45 No.11

Electrochemical properties of carbon cryogel electrode for the application of composite electrode materials mixed with metal oxide in supercapacitor have been studied. Carbon cryogels were synthesized by sol-gel polycondensation of resorcinol with formaldehyde, followed by a freeze drying, and then pyrolysis in an inert atmosphere. Physical properties of carbon cryogel were characterized by BET, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). It is found that carbon cryogel is amorphous material. The electrochemical properties of carbon cryogel were measured by cyclic voltammetry as a function of concentration of liquid electrolyte, galvanostatic charge-discharge with different scan rates and electrochemical impedance measurements. The result of cyclic voltammetry indicated that the specific capacitance value of a carbon cryogel electrode was approximately 150.2 F/g (at 5 mV/s in 6 M KOH electrolyte). Electrochemical properties of carbon cryogel electrode for the application of composite electrode materials mixed with metal oxide in supercapacitor have been studied. Carbon cryogels were synthesized by sol-gel polycondensation of resorcinol with formaldehyde, followed by a freeze drying, and then pyrolysis in an inert atmosphere. Physical properties of carbon cryogel were characterized by BET, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). It is found that carbon cryogel is amorphous material. The electrochemical properties of carbon cryogel were measured by cyclic voltammetry as a function of concentration of liquid electrolyte, galvanostatic charge-discharge with different scan rates and electrochemical impedance measurements. The result of cyclic voltammetry indicated that the specific capacitance value of a carbon cryogel electrode was approximately 150.2 F/g (at 5 mV/s in 6 M KOH electrolyte).

Preparation and Electrochemical Properties of Carbon Cryogel for Supercapacitor

Song, Min-Seob,Nahm, Sahn,Oh, Young-Jei The Korean Ceramic Society 2008 한국세라믹학회지 Vol.45 No.11

Electrochemical properties of carbon cryogel electrode for the application of composite electrode materials mixed with metal oxide in supercapacitor have been studied. Carbon cryogels were synthesized by sol-gel polycondensation of resorcinol with form aldehyde, followed by a freeze drying, and then pyrolysis in an inert atmosphere. Physical properties of carbon cryogel were characterized by BET, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). It is found that carbon cryogel is amorphous material. The electrochemical properties of carbon cryogel were measured by cyclic voltammetry as a function of concentration of liquid electrolyte, galvanostatic charge-discharge with different scan rates and electrochemical impedance measurements. The result of cyclic voltammetry indicated that the specific capacitance value of a carbon cryogel electrode was approximately 150.2 F/g (at 5 mV/s in 6M KOH electrolyte).

비장약량 맞춤형 터널발파 설계방법

최병희 ( Byung Hee Choi ),류창하 ( Chang Ha Ryu ),정주환 ( Ju Hwan Jeong ) 대한화약발파공학회 2009 화약발파 Vol.27 No.2

비장약량 또는 장약계수는 어떤 발파에서 파괴대상이 되는 암석의 총 부피 당 또는 총 무게 당 폭약소비량으로 정의된다. 암석 톤당 또는 입방미터 당 폭약 소비량의 변화는 언제나 암질변화에 대한 좋은 지표가 된다. 광산현장에서는 통상 광석(ore) 톤당 폭약 소비량을 암석에 대한 발파 용이성의 척도로 사용하는 반면, 건설현장에서는 암석 입방미터 당 폭약 소비량을 사용한다. 본 논문에서는 터널발파를 대상으로 하므로 건설현장에서 사용하는 비장약량의 정의를 채택하였다. 지금까지 다양한 터널발파 설계법들이 제안되어 있지만 이런 방법들을 현장에 적용하였을 때 잘 맞지 않는 경우가 많다. 그 이유는 무엇보다 각 나라나 지역별로 암질조건이 서로 상이하기 때문인 것으로 보이며, 이러한 문제는 발파의 설계자나 시공자에게 기술적으로 상당한 부담이 될 수도 있다. 그런데 만일 우리가 주어진 암석에 대한 적정 비장약량을 알고 있다면 발파설계가 매우 쉬워질수 있을 것이다. 이런 측면에서 본 논문에서는 사전에 결정된 비장약량이 있는 경우 그 비장약량에 맞추어서 터널발파를 설계할 수 있는 알고리즘을 제안하였다. 이 알고리즘은 터널단면 상의 다양한 영역에 서로 다른 구속도를 부여하는 개념을 토대로 하고 있으며, 기존에 알려진 터널발파 설계방법들과 조합하여 사용할 수 있는 경험적인 설계방법이다. Specific charge, also called powder factor, is defined as the total explosive mass in a blast divided with the total volume or weight of rock to be fragmented. It is a well-known fact that change in explosive consumption per ton or per cubic meter of rock is always a good indication of changed rock conditions. In mining, it is common to use explosive consumption per ton of ore as a measure of the blastability for rock. On the contrary, in civil engineering, it is common to use explosive consumption per cubic meter of rock. In this paper, we adopt the definition of the civil engineering because we are mainly concerned with tunnel blasting. Up to now, although various methods for tunnel blast design have been proposed, there are so many cases in which the proposed methods do not work well. These may be caused by the differences in rock conditions between countries or regions, and can give a serious technical difficulty to a contractor. But if we know the specific charge for a given rock, then the blast design can become much more easier. In this respect, we suggest an algorithm for tunnel blast design that can exactly produce the predetermined specific charge as a result of the design. The algorithm is based on the concept of assigning different fixation factors to various parts of tunnel section, and may be used in combination with the known methods of tunnel blast design.

수용액 기반 소듐 이온 배터리용 헥사사이아노철산 니켈의 전기화학 거동에 미치는 전해질내 음이온의 영향

박성준,전상은 대한금속·재료학회 2020 대한금속·재료학회지 Vol.58 No.12

Nickel hexacyanoferrate (NiHCF) has a three-dimensional open framework structure, excellent long-cycling stability and rate performance as a cathode for aqueous sodium-ion batteries. However, the specific capacity of NiHCF is lower than that of present cathodes for aqueous batteries. A sodium-ion electrolyte was explored to achieve optimum capacity with NiHCF. Powder-type NiHCF was fabricated by coprecipitation with the atomic composition K0.065Ni1.44Fe(CN)6·4.4H2O. The presence of Fe vacancies in the atomic composition is attributable to the inclusion of coordinating and zeolitic water during coprecipitation. Two sodium-ion electrolytes, 1 M Na2SO4 and 1 M NaNO3, were employed to analyze the electrochemical behavior of the NiHCF electrode. Identical redox potentials to 0.58 V (vs. NHE) were measured in both electrolytes. However, a lower overpotential was observed in NaNO3 compared to Na2SO4 as a result of the smaller interfacial charge transfer resistance. The lower charge transfer resistance in the NaNO3 solution produced a higher specific capacity of 57 mAh g-1 (1 C-rate) and the superior capacity retention of 46.6% at 20 C-rate. The anion in the aqueous electrolyte changed the charge transfer resistance at the electrode/ electrolyte interface, confirming the electrolyte anion has a crucial effect on the charge capacity and rate performance of NiHCF.

Macrostructure of Fuel Spray by Charge Injected Pressure-Swirl Nozzle

( Gabriel Nii Laryea ),( Soo Young No ) 한국액체미립화학회 2003 한국액체미립화학회 학술강연회 논문집 Vol.2003 No.-

Positively and Negatively Charged Collagen Nanohydrogels: pH‐responsive Drug‐releasing Characteristics

김한샘,김성진,강지혜,신원상 대한화학회 2018 Bulletin of the Korean Chemical Society Vol.39 No.4

Researchers are facing many challenges in developing a strategy for site‐specific delivery in the gastrointestinal tract that can maximize therapeutic response and reduce side effects. The objective of this article was to develop a site‐specific drug delivery system for the gastrointestinal tract using natural polymer collagen (CG). For this, two types of pH‐responsive CG nanohydrogels (negatively charged pH‐CGNH‐COOH and positively charged pH‐CGNH‐NH2) were prepared using negatively and positively functionalized carbon nanotubes, CNT‐COOH and CNT‐NH2, respectively. The pH‐CGNH‐COOH and pH‐CGNH‐NH2 nanohydrogel samples comprising negatively and positively charged fibrils (CG/CNT‐COOH and CG/CNT‐NH2) were physicochemically characterized by Fourier‐transform infrared spectrometry, Zeta sizer, thermogravimetric analysis, and field emission scanning electron microscopy. They also revealed the pH‐responsive release of bovine serum albumin at pH 9 and cytochrome C at pH 2. These results strongly indicate that these drug carriers can be useful for site‐specific delivery in the gastrointestinal tract.

슈퍼커패시터 전극 제조시 Indium-Tin-Oxide기판 위 활성탄 증착에 적합한 바인더와 용매 소재

최영묵,전상은 대한금속·재료학회 2021 대한금속·재료학회지 Vol.59 No.12

Supercapacitor electrode slurry is prepared for mass production by mixing activated carbon powder, conductive agent, and binder, which is then deposited on a substrate using the doctor-blade method. Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) are used as binder and solvent, respectively, to form the electrode slurry on a metal substrate. In this study, ethyl cellulose (EC) is evaluated as a binder to prepare an electrode on an indium-tin-oxide (ITO) substrate obtaining transparent supercapacitors. Terpineol and isopropyl alcohol (IPA) are compared as suitable solvents for the EC binder. When terpineol is employed as a solvent, the conductive agent is uniformly deposited around the activated carbon powder. An electrode prepared using EC and terpineol exhibits slightly lower specific capacitance and rate performance than that using conventional PVDF and NMP. However, the electrode prepared using EC and terpineol securely adheres to the electrode components, resulting in a robust electrode. In contrast, an electrode prepared using EC and IPA exhibits high charge transfer resistance at the interface of the electrode/ electrolyte, leading to a low specific capacitance and rate performance. Thus, ecofriendly EC and terpineol can substitute the conventional PVDF and NMP for depositing activated carbon powder on an ITO substrate, while improving the specific capacitance of manufactured electrodes.

골재생산과 관련한 터널작업에서 효율적인 심빼기 발파공법

임한욱,김재홍,조영동 강원대학교 부설 석재복합신소재 제품연구센터 2000 석재연 논문집 Vol.5 No.-

실린더 컷 심빼기 공법은 일반적으로 터널단면에 관계없이 널리 쓰이는 방법이다. 본 연구에서는 종래의 실린더 컷 공법을 개선한 새로운 방법을 제안하였다. 제안한 방법의 특징은 발파당 굴진장을 증대시킬수 있는데 이를 요약하면 다음과 같다. 발파당 굴진장은 평균 3.8m 이상으로 종래의 심빼기 바법 경우 천공장의 90~95% 인데 비하여 제안한 방법은 천공장의 99.5%까지 가능하다. 또한 비장약량은 1.363에서 1.297 kg/㎥로 약 5%가, 비천공장은 2.393에서 2.130 kg/㎥로 약 8%가 감소되었다. 이외에 발파진동, 비산거리, 파쇄입도면에서도 종래 방법보다 양호함을 확인하였다. The cylindrical cut is most frequently used in tunnelling regardless of their dimensions. In this study the new parallel cut is proposed to raise advance per round, which is considered to be an elevation of the traditional cylinder cuts. The main results of this study are as follows; The average advances per rounds in new cuts can reach 99.5% of drilling length. That of traditional cylinder cuts are known approximately 90~95%; Specific charge weight is approximately reduced 5%(1.363→1.297 kg/㎥); Specific drilling rate is also reduced 8% compared to that of cylinder cut(2.393→2.130 kg/㎥); Vibrations, fly rock, and fragmentation produced by the new blast are to be proved superior to those of the traditional cylinder cuts.

졸-겔법에 의한 ITiO(Indium Titanium Oxide) 입자의 합성과 ITiO 박막의 광투과도 조사

고은주,김상헌 한국응용과학기술학회 2017 한국응용과학기술학회지 Vol.34 No.4

본 연구에서는 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 wt%의 TiO2를 함유하는 인듐-티타늄 수산화물을 졸 및 염기 첨가에 의해 얻었고, 200oC와 500oC에서 겔화 과정을 통해 ITiO(Indium Titanate Oxide)를 얻었다. 200oC에서 겔화 과정 후 얻어지는 ITiO 입자가 작아서 조밀성이 있는 ITiO 타겟을 제조하였다. 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 wt%의 TiO2를 함유하는 ITiO 타겟을 스퍼터링하여 ITiO 박막을 유리판위에 제작하여 비저항, 전하 이동도, 캐리어 농도를 조사하였다. 이들 박막 중에서 산소 조성이 0.4 %인 조건에서 0.5 wt% 중량% TiO2를 함유하는 ITiO 타겟으로부터 제작된 ITiO 박막이 가장 낮은 비저항, 가장 큰 전하이동도 및 가장 낮은 캐리어 농도를 보임을 알 수 있었고, 얻어진 ITiO 박막의 광투과율을 측정하여 적외선 영역에서 광투과율이 ITO(Indium Tin Oxide) 박막에 비해 현저히 증가함을 발견하였다. In this study, Indium-Titanium hydroxide particle with 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 wt% of TiO2 were synthesized by sol process and adding the base, ITiO(Indium Titanium Oxide) particles were obtained by gelling at 200 oC and 500oC. The ITiO particle's size with gel process at 200oC was smaller than ITiO particle's size with gel process 500oC. The ITiO particle with gel process at 200oC was used to fabricate dense ITiO target. ITiO targets with 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 wt% of TiO2 were fabricated and used to obtain ITiO thin films onto glass by sputtering. Among those sputtered ITiOs' thin films, ITiO thin film with 0.4 % of O2 and 0.5 wt% of TiO2 showed the lowest specific resistance, highest charge mobility and lowest carrier concentration. It was found the light transmittance of the ITiO film were increased highly compared to light transmittance of ITO(Indium Tin Oxide) thin film over Infrared wavelength ranges