니시 아마네(서주(西周))의 과학개념-학(學), “물리(物理)”, “격물(格物)”을 중심으로-

김성근 ( Sung Khun Kim ) 한국동서철학회 2014 동서철학연구 Vol.73 No.-

This article is to study Nishi Amane’s scientific concepts, ‘gaku(學)’, ‘butsuri(物理)’, ‘kakubutsu(格物)’. Nishi is known not only as a translator of modern technical terms which have been widely used in East Asia, but also as an organizer who classified area of knowledge by accepting Western knowledge. The study on the change of the concepts such as ‘gaku’, ‘butsuri’, ‘kakubutsu’, illustrates how Nishi could accept modern Western knowledge during the nineteenth century. Nishi translated science into ‘gaku’, and divided it from ‘jutsu(術, art)’. According to Nishi, however, ‘gaku’ is strongly related to ‘jutsu’, so their relation is similar to science and technology. Nishi used the word ‘kagaku(科學)’, which is normally translated from science today, but that meant just each fields of knowledge. Nishi did not use the word ‘butsuri’ in the meaning of physics. He used the word in the meaning of the law of the natural world including animals and plants. The object of ‘butsuri’ by Nishi indicates physical, biological, and chemical phenomenon. Therefore, we can say his ‘butsuri’ is similar to traditional concept of ‘butsuri’ in Edo period rather than physics in Western science.‘Kakubutsu’ was originally from Neo-confucianism, but Nishi redefined the meaning of ‘kakubutsu’. Nishi used the word ‘kakubutsu’ in the meaning of physics. Nishi translated ‘matter’ into the chinese character ‘butsu(物)’. According to Nishi, the concept of ‘butsu’ from ‘butsuri’ differs from the concept of ‘butsu’ from ‘kakubutsu’. It shows that Nishi divided the concept of ‘butsu’ from Neo-confucianism into two concepts. Division of the concepts of ‘butsu’ by Nishi was not only the key point that Nish divided ‘butsuri’ from ‘kakubutsu’, but also the starting point that he divided area of science such as physics and chemistry.

西周의 번역어 창출과 중국의 유교

신현승 한국일본사상사학회 2012 일본사상 Vol.0 No.22

Nishi Amane (1829-1997) is called as ‘the father of Japanese philosophy’. When evaluating Nishi Amane nowadays, the very first thing that rises in the head is the numerous Eastern Asian modern scholarship concept words, which created by himself. Therefore, this study focuses on the Eastern Asian modern scholarship concept words created by Nishi Amane and processed the discussion by putting the translation language issue, as in its ideological base and supernational ideology, in sight. That is, the discussion was developed by setting the two axis of creation procedure of Nishi Amane’s translation language and Chinese Confucianism. To develop such discussion, the text of this study mentions the influential issue on Zhuzixue and Soraigaku which became the ideological base of Nishi Amane. Subsequently, Chinese Confucianism revealed at the meet with the western scholarship at last was highlighted. Furthermore, it appointed that the translation language created by Nishi Amane himself contains Confucian ideological elements and discussed the issue of ‘Eastern Asian Modern Scholarship as in Translation’ in further. Through this, the study argued that the creation procedure of Nishi Amane’s translation language and the scholarship concept words, its result, cannot exist as not basing on the thinking method of the Confucian ideology and the concept within the text of the Confucian ideology.

최한기와 니시 아마네의 ‘국가’ 인식 비교 —국가의 목적과 중국 및 천하관을 중심으로—

임태홍 동양철학연구회 2019 동양철학연구 Vol.98 No.-

This paper attempts to compare the recognitions of the 'nation' by two philosophers, Choi Han-gi (崔漢綺, 1803-1877) of Korea(Joseon) and Nishi Amane (西周, 1829-1897) of Japan. In particular, the author compares their views on 'nation', mainly through analyzing In-Jeong(人政, personal administration) written by Choi and Heifu-Ron(兵賦論, Discourse on military service) by Nishi. Firstly, the paper examines their concepts about 'nation' in the Great Learning(大學)'s key thought, ‘after self-moral training and home management comes governing a country and the entire world(修身․齊家․治國․平天下)’. The nation views of Choi and Nishi premises the 'world(天下)', and they have similarity showing expended views of Western world. Choi Hangi, however, attached more importance to the 'world', which is not so different with the nation views of traditional Confucian scholars. On the other hand, Nishi Amane accepted the nationalism from Western society, and thereby he showed the modern view of nation. Secondly, this dissertation investigates the recognitions on their homelands, that is Joseon and Japan. It is rare for Choi Hangi to mention his own country 'Joseon' in the document In-Jeong, such a inclination can be discovered in his other books. While, he shows a close affinity with China, and he has not some sense of distance about Chinese culture or its civilization. In other word, he didn't look at China as the other country. Nishi Amane, however, frequently referred to his own country, Japan, in his writings and usually thought most problems from the standpoint of the nation. Japan, to him, actually can be said to be the fiducial point, that is a starting and terminal point of his thought. Lastly, the writer examines the distinctions of their concepts on nation through the ideas of ‘public peace(治安)’ of Choi and ‘national defense(國防)’ of Nishi. Choi Hangi noticed 'public peace' as a national policy to which a supreme ruler of a country should attach importance. The security of a nation is to rule a country in peace. Nishi Amane, however, took a serious view of military affairs, especially defensive preparation of army. In other words, Choi did not emphasized military affairs, whereas Nishi did not stress the security problem of a country. This difference may be originated in the contrast gaps of the previous notions which are discussed in Chapter Ⅱ and Ⅲ. 이 연구는 전통시대 말엽에 활동했던 조선과 일본의 두 사상가, 즉 최한기(崔漢綺, 1803∼1877)와 니시 아마네(西周, 1829∼1897)의 '국가'에 대한 인식을 비교한 것이다. 최한기의 경우는 ‘인정(人政)’을, 니시 아마네의 경우는 ‘병부론(兵賦論)’을 주로 사용하여 분석을 진행하였다. 먼저 이 논문은 두 사상가가 『대학』 팔조목의 ‘수신․제가․치국․평천하(修身․齊家․治國․平天下)’의 개념에 대해서 어떠한 인식을 하고 있는지 살펴보았다. 그리고 그러한 인식 가운데 ‘국가’에 대한 이미지가 어떤 것인가 고찰하였다. 최한기와 니시 아마네의 ‘국가’관은 모두 ‘천하’를 전제로 하고 하고, 확장된 서구세계에 대한 인식을 보여준다는 점에서는 유사하지만, 차이점으로 최한기의 경우는 ‘천하’가 더 중시되며, 전통적인 유학자의 국가관과 크게 다르지 않은 반면에, 니시 아마네의 경우는 서구의 내셔널리즘(nationalism)을 수용하여 근대적인 ‘국가인식을 보여주는 것이 특징이다. 다음으로 이 연구는 두 사상가의 자국에 대한 인식을 살펴보았다. 최한기의 경우는 ‘조선’에 대한 언급이 거의 없다. 『인정』에 나타난 이러한 특징은 그의 다른 저작물에서도 마찬가지다. 반면에 그는 ‘중국’에 대해서 매우 강한 사상적 친연성을 보이며, 문화적, 사상적으로 ‘중국’과 ‘조선’ 사이에 거리감이 없다. 반면에 니시는 ‘일본’에 대해서 매우 ‘민족주의’적인 입장을 가지고 있으며 ‘일본’이 사실상 그의 사상의 ‘기준’, 즉 그 사상의 출발점이자 종착지가 되어 있다. 마지막으로 필자는 ‘치안’과 ‘국방’의 개념을 들어 두 사람의 ‘국가’ 인식 차이를 살펴보았다. 최한기는 국가의 최고 통치자가 중시해야할 사안으로 국가 내부의 통치, 즉 ‘치안(治安)’을 들었다. 반면에 니시 아마네는 국가 외부의 방비, 즉 대외적인 군사 준비(兵備), 즉 국방을 중시했다. 이러한 차이는 앞장 제Ⅱ장과 제Ⅲ장에서 논의한 차이점에 기인한다고 할 수 있다.

니시 아마네와 최한기의 ‘학역(學域)’과 근대학문의 구상

김성근 ( Kim Sung-khun ) 한국동서철학회 2020 동서철학연구 Vol.0 No.95

This study compares Nishi Amane and Choi Han-gi's designs of modern learning in 19th century. Nishi and Choi had a strong belief that human learning had advanced in history. Nishi had gained such an idea of academic progress through Comte's empirical philosophy and Western natural science, on the other hand Choi Han-gi came to the idea of such academic progress through studying Western natural science which was translated to Chinese. However, Nishi and Choi were very different in their acceptance of Western natural science into their academic systems and in designing new modern learning. Two goals of Nishi's modern learning were the division of academic disciplines, and the design of integrated academics by an interconnection of academic disciplines. Nishi divided all disciplines into three larger frameworks of Intellectual Science, Physical Science, and Common Science, and placed detailed subjects within them. In particular, Intellectual Science and Physical Science correspond to today's Humanities and Natural Science. Nishi could effectively achieve the classification of such learning by dividing the Ri (principle) of Confucianism to the laws of the human world and the laws of the physical world. Nishi tried to pursue Philosophy by again linking these divided disciplines together. In Nishi's academic methodology, the influence of Comte's philosophy of revealing sociology through the study of the natural sciences was well represented. Choi Han-gi also paid attention to the establishment of integrated learning through the distinction of academic studies and reunion of such disciplines. Choi was not as elaborate as Nishi in terms of division of studies. Whereas Nishi divided the learning into Intellectual Science and Physical Science by the distinction of the law of the physical world and the law of human world, Choi Han-Gi thought that all subjects shared the so-called law of Ki (vital force). Nishi thought that the reunification of all learning could be achieved by reconnecting the law of the physical world and the law of the human world. As a result, however, Nishi's academic chain, and his philosophy were not successful. After Nishi’s thinking, Japanese academic society was dominated by Dualistic concepts such as natural sciences and humanities, subjectivity and objectivity, and Nature and humans. Choi's view of dividing all disciplines with the universal law of Ki was vaguer than Nishi’s. However, Choi's Ki-science, although lacking concreteness, was able to escape the dual cognitive structure that East Asians had maintained since Nishi. It is worth noting that Choe’s philosophy leaves possibilities for new modern study.

현실 정치와 번역, 그 일례 : 메이지 초기 군제사와 니시 아마네

허지향(Heo, Ji-Hyang) 일본사학회 2020 일본역사연구 Vol.53 No.-

The purpose of this paper was to examine the overall work done by Nishi Amane (1829-1897) in the Ministry of Military Affairs, later referred to as the Department of the Army, beginning in 1870. Until now, Nishi Amane has been noted in domestic research as “a thinker representing the intellectual transformation of East Asia in the 19th century.” In particular, many studies have analyzed the aspects of Nishi s concept translation or the design of modern academic planning based on text. Meanwhile, in Japanese academia, Nishi s studies on law and political science in the Netherlands have been shown to be of great import, but still highlight the “enlightenment thinker” idea and prove his contribution to “militarism”. It was Sugawara s 2009 study that tried to overcome this simple characterization. This paper explores how Nishi Amane called himself “a person who works for the government and translates”. The author examines the relationship between the real politicians and translators through Nishi Amane. It is widely known that Nishi worked for the Army, but there has been no paper to summarize the whole situation as it played out. In addition, it is not just an outline on what Nishi did in the Ministry of Military Affairs, but also about organizing facts about the early Meiji military system from a different perspective, and reveals where Nishi Amane and the Ministry of Military Affairs occupy this part of history.

19세기 후반, 동아시아인의 서구 심리학 수용 -니시 아마네와 옌용징의 ‘mental philosophy’·‘psychology’ 번역을 중심으로-

이대승 ( Lee¸ Dae-seung ) 한국동서철학회 2020 동서철학연구 Vol.0 No.98

This article explored the aspects of East Asians' acceptance of Western psychology in the late 19th century, focusing on translations of Nishi Amane and Yan Yongjing about Joseph Haven's writings, Mental Philosophy (1857). The first Western psychology book translated into East Asia is Joseph Haven's Mental Philosophy. The book is translated by Nishi Amane of Japan under the title Shinrigaku 心理學 (1875-76). This book is the first Western psychological translation of East Asia, where the term 心理學 is now widely used as a translation of psychology. However, the term 心理學 used by Nishi Amane was originally an abbreviation for Shinri philosophy 心理哲學, which was the term for mental philosophy, Senligaku 性理學 was the term for psychology. Joseph Haven's book is translated into Xinling xue 心靈學 (1889) by Yan Yongjing in China. At this time, Yan Yongjing translated both 'mental philosophy' and 'psychology' into Xinling xue 心靈學. Based on traditional Confucian ideas, Nishi Amane compared and interpreted Western psychology and chose a translation. Yan Yongjing, as a missionary, put theology in an intellectual background and understood Western psychology and adopted an appropriate translation. The cases of Nishi Amane and Yan Yongjing show that the choice of the terms depends on the academic foundation of the acceptor or translator. After Nishi Amane’s Shinrigaku 心理學, psychology as a modern science gradually spread and settled in Japan, in which the term 心理學 became the accepted translation for psychology. In China, the Japanese term 心理學 was accepted and widely used after the end of the 19th century.

니시 아마네의 철학에 있어서“주관”과 “객관” 개념의 성립

김성근 ( Sung Khun Kim ) 한국동서철학회 2014 동서철학연구 Vol.71 No.-

This article is to study the birth of the concepts of ‘subject’ and ‘object’ in Nishi Amane`s philosophy, who was said the first modern philosopher in Meiji Japan. The technical terms, shukan (subjectivity, Ju-gwan in Korean) and gyakkan (objectivity, gek-gwan in Japanese) in modern philosophy, were used for the first time in Nishi`s philosophical text books such as Hyakugaku-renkan (Links of Hundred Sciences, 1870) and Seisei-hatsuun (The Relation of the Physical and the Spiritual, 1873). Nishi translated ‘subjective contemplation’ and ‘objective contemplation’ into shi-kan此觀 and hi-kan彼觀 in Japanese. However, he changed soon the words shi-kan and hi-kan into shukan and gyakkan in Jisetsu (The Theory of Knowledge, 1874). Nishi used the words shukan and gyakkan in the context of philosophical cognition. According to him, when human cognition was started from hi彼, it can be called hi-kan, and when human cognition was started from shi此, it can be called shi-kan. Although shi-kan and hi-kan were coined from traditional Chinese characters, there were drastic change in their concepts. Nishi translated ‘ego’ into ‘shi’, and ‘God’ into ‘hi’. ‘Hi’ was not translated from the meaning of ‘guest’ or ‘the third man’ in traditional concepts of Chinese characters, but translated from the meaning of Christian ‘God’. We can say that, therefore, there was big change between two world views. Nishi tried to solve the secrete of ‘shin心’ (mind) by studying of natural science, dividing shinri心理 from butsuri物理 through restudying ri of Neo-Confucianism. The study of the essence of shinri was the important goal in Nishi`s philosophy, and then it remained the need of reconnecting butsuri with shinri. According to him, somatology was to study human being which consisted of human body and human mind. Therefore, Nishi thought that butsuri and shinri could be connected each other by studying somatology, which meant the unity of subjective method and objective method. However, Nishi could not find an appropriate answer to unite between butsuri and shinri from somatology. Division between butsuri and shinri by Nishi finally resulted in the birth of subjective and objective cognition based in Descartes` dualism.

『니시 아마네 철학 저작집(西周哲学著作集)』 편찬 배경 — 아소 요시테루(麻生義輝)의 전회와 메이지 일본 —

허지향 한국일본사상사학회 2021 일본사상 Vol.- No.40

본고에서는 니시 아마네(西周, 1829~1897)에 관한 평가가 지닌 역사성을 밝힌다. 구 체적으로는 니시가 죽은 후 최초로 간행된 저작집인 『니시 아마네 철학 저작집(西周哲 学著作集)』(岩波書店, 1933)에 주목하여 그 특징을 밝히고 간행 경위를 구체적으로 재 현한다. 특히 편집자인 아소 요시테루가 니시의 저작집을 철학편으로 간행한 배경에는 니시가 남긴 작업의 성질을 떠나서 한 사상가의 “전체 사업”을 “기본적” “철학적 입장” 으로 위치 짓는 작업이 가능해진 시대가 되었기 때문임을 강조했다. 또한 아소가 이전 에는 아나키스트로 활동했다는 사실을 통해 니시에 관한 최초의 “문화사적 접근”이 갖 는 특수한 배경을 지적하고, 아소에 의한 최초의 니시 연구가 1930년대, 요시노 사쿠조 등의 “메이지 문화 연구회”를 배경으로 함을 지적했다. The purpose of this paper is to clarify the historical assessment of Amane Nishi(西周, 1829-1897). Specifically, I focus on 『西周哲学著作集(Nishi Amane Philosophy Collection)』(1933), the first book published after Nishi’s death. I discuss its characteristics and investigated the process leading up to its publication. In particular, Yoshiteru Aso(麻生義 輝), the editor, published Nishi’s work in a philosophy book because it was possible to position Nishi’s “complete works” in a “foundational” and “philosophical context” regardless of the military connections of Nishi’s work. The fact that Aso had previously worked as an anarchist also pointed to the special background of Nishi’s “cultural historical approach”. I also point out that the first study of Nishi by Aso was discussed in the 1930s by Sakuzo Yoshino(吉野作造) and other’s at “The society of Meiji culture(明治文化研究会)”.

사상 : 근대 전환시기 최한기와 니시 아마네의 학문관 비교

임태홍 ( Tai Hong Lim ) 영산대학교 동양문화연구원 2015 동양문화연구 Vol.22 No.-

이 연구는 최한기가 주자학과 실학적인 전통위에 자신의 학문세계를 구축한 점을 주목하고 니시 아마네의 경우는 일본 고문사학파의 학문, 즉 소라이학적인 전통 위에 학문을 구축하였다는 점을 주목하여 두 사람의 학문세계를 비교, 고찰하였다. 조선의 실학과 일본 에도시대의 소라이학은 모두 주자학의 문제점을 극복하는 과정에서 발생한 학문으로, 실학은 주자학의 큰 틀과 사상체계를 거부하지 않았으나, 소라이학은 주자학의 패러다임을 정면으로 부정하면서 등장한 사상이다. 즉, 실학은 리와 태극을 중심으로 한 주자학의 형이상학적 담론을 거부하고 실증적이며 현실적인 문제에 관심을 가졌다. 구체적이고 개별적인 사실과 현상에 관심을 가졌다고 한다면 소라이학은 통일적인 원리를 부정하고, 하나의 절대적인 대명제를 거부한다는 점에서 귀납적인 진리의 추구와는 거리가 멀다. 고대에 사용된 어떤 단어의 진정한 개념을 찾아내 그것을 다른 문장을 읽는데 활용하는 일이나, 고대의 진실한 도(道), 즉 선왕의 가르침을 찾아내 그것을 현실의 여러 상황에 대응시켜나가는 일은 연역적 방법이라고 할 수 있다. 최한기와 니시가 각각 실학과 소라이학으로부터 받은 영향은 그 내용보다는 이러한 방법론상의 영향이었다고 할 수 있다. 최한기의 기학은 실용적인 여러 학문을 체계적으로 구축하고자 한 성격이 강하다. 중국의 이학(理學)과 심학(心學)이 거대한 사상 체계를 구축하였듯이 그의 기학도 하나의 대명제를 중심으로 거대한 학문 체계를 조직하고자 하였다. 그러나 니시의 양학은 새로운 학문 체계의 구축보다는 서구 문명의 사상과 학문을 있는 그대로 순수하게 수용, 전달하고자하는 경향이 강했다. 니시가 서양어의 번역에 특히 힘을 썼던 것은 일본사회에 서구 문명의 참모습을 그대로 전하고자 하는 의지가 강했기 때문이다. This paper compares between Choi, Hangi``s view and Nishi Amane``s view on learning. Choi, Hangi structured his world of learning upon the academic tradition of Neo-Confucianism and Silhak, whereas Nishi Amane built his scholarship on the tradition of Kobunjigaku founded by Ogy Sorai. Both Silhak of Joseon and Soraigaku of Japan were created in the course of overcoming the problems of Neo-Confucianism. However, there is a great difference between the two schools. One did not refused the paradigm or the system of the Confucian philosophy of Song times, but the other aggressively controverted it. Scholars of the Silhak school disapproved of the metaphysical discourse of Neo-Confucianism, and had interests in the realistic problems. They also were concerned about the concrete facts and phenomena. This tendency might be similar to the inductive approach to the truth, or first principles. Those who belong to Sorai school, however, disclaimed a unified principle for the universe, or all creation. Their approach for true principles was a long way from inductive method. It was near the deductive reasoning. The effects to the thoughts of Choi and Nishi from the Silhak and Soraigaku was the method of learning, not the contents. Kihak of Choi, Hangi was a compilation of the various practical studies of East and West. His Kihak aimed at for the construction of the great ideal system focusing on the great principle, as if the Lixue and Xinxue of China did. Yougaku, the western learning, of Nishi Amane, however, intended to grasp the genuine thought and learning of Western civilization and to convey to the society of Meiji Japan just as it was. Consequentially, Nishi gave his best to the translation of Western culture.

니시 아마네(西周)에 있어서 "리(理)" 관념의 전회와 그 인간학적 취약성

김성근 ( Sung Khun Kim ) 성균관대학교 대동문화연구원 2011 大東文化硏究 Vol.73 No.-

니시 아마네는 메이지(明治) 일본의 대표적 계몽주의자이자 최초의 근대 철학자로 알려져 있다. 그는 주자학의 핵심 개념인 ``理``를 재해석하여 物理와 心理로 구분하고, 서양 자연과학(物理)의 수용을 위한 형이상학적 기초를 구상했다. 그런데 니시의 학문적 목표는 근대적 인간학의 구축에 있었다. 그의 인간학은 인간 心理上에 자리잡은 敎의 본질을 밝힘으로써 가능한 것이었는데, 그것은 서양의 物理=자연과학의 성과를 이용하여 인간 心理의 근원을 추구하는 방식으로 전개되었다. 콩트의 실증주의 철학에서 감명을 받았던 니시는 생물학을 통한 해부학적 지식이 인간 心理에 대한 이해를 가능하게 할 것이라고 믿었다. 그것은 곧 物理를 통해 心理에 이르는 길이었다는 점에서 物理와 心理의 재연결을 의미했다. 그러나 이 같은 니시의 구상이 결국 실패로 돌아갔을 때, 그의 인간학은 취약한 측면을 노출시켰다. 그것은 物理를 구성하는 주체로 성립해야 했던 心理가 天에 귀속됨으로써, 天翁이라는 초월자가 인간 心理를 조정하는 지극히 파탄적인 인간학이었다. This article analyzes the work of Nishi Amane who endeavored to construct the metaphysical ground of modern science and philosophy in Japan during the 19th century. Nishi`s vast body of work involved dividing the ``ri`` of Neo-Confucianism into two different concepts, the physical law and the human law. He challenged to reconstruct human ethics by modern Western science such as Physics, Chemistry, and Biology. According to Nishi, Biology was the knowledge which studied both human body and mind. Nishi believed that if biologists studied a human body, they could find some organs which control the human mind. In spite of his belief, he did not find any organs which control human mind. When Nishi failed to find the ground of human ethics by Biology, his study about human being revealed some weakness. In modern Western science and philosophy, the human mind should be the subject to examine the external world. The human mind which Nishi thought, however, was the object subordinated to the heaven. When the human mind was not able to play the role of the subject to recognize the external world, the human being in Nishi`s Anthropology remained as a passive existence. The role of human mind, which had to examine the physical world, was replaced by a supernatural being of the heaven. It was the world that a supernatural being controls all the things including human body and mind. In this article, I hope to show what was the origin of the weakness in Nishi`s Anthropology.