준조동사 ‘BE TO’ 구문에 대한 통사적 분석

조남호(Cho Nahmho) 한국영어학학회 2017 영어학연구 Vol.23 No.1

The English infinitive can be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb equivalent. There are three types of ‘be+to-infinitive’ in English. The first type ‘be to-infinitive’ is one in which the infinitive is a noun equivalent. In the second ‘BE TO-infinitive’, the infinitive is considered to be an adjective equivalent acting as a subject complement. In the third ‘is to-infinitive,’ the infinitive is called a retroactive. This study has fully discussed the differences of these three types. They have an apparently identical construction in which the verb ‘be’ is followed by an infinitive, but in fact they have different syntactic and semantic characteristics. Jespersen(1940) classified English infinitives into three ranks: primary, secondary and tertiary. The verb ‘be’ of the first type ‘be to’ is a copula and the infinitive is Jespersen’s primary and so a nominal infinitive acting as a complement of ‘be.’ There are two kinds of infinitives as Jespersen’s secondary: retroactive and non-retroactive. Korean school grammar has argued that Jespersen’s secondary non-retroactive infinitive of ‘BE TO’ is a subject complement, and so an adjective equivalent. However, this argument has proved to be untenable. Unlike ‘be to,’ ‘BE TO’ cannot be divided into two units, i.e. the verb ‘be’ and ‘to-infinitive.’ The whole ‘BE TO’ as a unit is a modal idiom or quasi-auxiliary referring to several future meanings: arrangement, order, destiny, possibility, purpose, etc. The infinitive of ‘is to’ is a retroactive. It is an active infinitive which is said to have a passive meaning, but Jespersen(1940) looks upon the infinitive as active and as governing a preceding item as its (implicit) object.

“영문독해” 어떻게 가르칠 것인가?

조남호(Nahmho Cho) 한국중원언어학회 2011 언어학연구 Vol.0 No.20

We need linguistic knowledge of English vocabulary and grammar in order to understand English sentences. Besides, we need to understand English sentence structures. I have been teaching ‘English Reading’ in a college for several years. When I began to teach this subject, I thought that only one semester would be enough to enable college students to understand complex English sentences. This was due to my mere assumption that they might have acquired the sufficient knowledge of English vocabulary and grammar because they were students of English Department. As a result, my teaching concentrated on the structures of English complex sentences such as relative clauses. After a few years of teaching, however, I came to realize that one semester was not enough to teach English Reading. The basic reason for the conclusion was that they were short of knowledge of English vocabulary and grammar. Without deep knowledge of English vocabulary and grammar, it would be almost impossible to develop the ability of reading English. In order to help my students, I think now that I have no choice but to teach not only sentence structures but also English grammar. It will take long time and require a great deal of labor.

영어 술어 5형식과 부사적 수식어

조남호(Nahmho Cho) 한국중원언어학회 2014 언어학연구 Vol.0 No.33

An English sentence consists of two parts: the subject and the predicate. The subject denotes a person or a thing, and the predicate illustrates something about the person or the thing denoted by the subject. The predicate may consist of a verb alone or a verb together with other words. Onions (1904) classified English predicates into five forms according to their structural patterns. His analyses have exerted strong influence on English education in Korea, but they also have a big problem. They cannot explain the exact syntactic structures of English predicates, because they exclude adverbial elements such as adverbs or prepositional phrases. English has so many verbs that cannot complete their meanings without the help of an adverbial element. In this paper, I argue that Onions"s analyses should be revised to include adverbial elements. I would in detail explain why my argument is reasonable and justifiable by explicating some problematic aspects of Onions"s analyses. At the end of this paper, I discussed some implications for better understanding of English predicates, ultimately for the development of English education in Korea.

영어 부정사구문의 주어와 목적어

조남호 한국교통대학교 2017 한국교통대학교 논문집 Vol.52 No.-

The infinitive in English is a non-finite verb, so it does not have to have a grammatical subject or object (To see is to believe). However, since it is a kind of verbal, it can have a sense subject and object. This study is chiefly concerned with several ways in which the subject and object of the infinitive can be expressed. The sense subject of the English infinitive can be omitted or expressed overtly. When the subject of the infinitive is an indefinite general person or is the same as that of the main sentence, it is not expressed overtly. There are several cases where a verb or preposition takes, as its object, the phrase ‘noun+infinitive’, which is called as ‘the accusative with the infinitive.’ In those cases, the noun is the sense subject of the infinitive. When the verb of the infinitive is a transitive, it needs an object. In this study, we paid a special attention to Jespersen’s ‘retroactive infinitive.’ In general, the object of a verb follows the verb. However, the object of the retroactive infinitive precedes it. It is an active infinitive which is said to have a passive meaning, but Jespersen(1940) looks upon the infinitive as active and as governing a preceding item as its (implicit) object. Finally, I have gone deep into the predicate type ‘be+adjective+infinitive.’ In this predicate, the subject or object of the infinitive is determined differently according to the ‘adjective’ type. In the ‘easy’ type (Tom is easy to please), the grammatical subject of the main sentence is the object of the infinitive, but in the ‘eager’ type (Tom is eager to please), the grammatical subject is also the sense subject of the infinitive.

영어 수동문의 제약과 용법

조남호 한국교통대학교 2016 한국교통대학교 논문집 Vol.51 No.-

Voice is a grammatical category which makes it possible to view the action of a sentence in either of two ways, without change in the facts reported. The verb form of a sentence shows whether the subject of the sentence performs the action (the active voice) or is affected by it (the passive voice). The active voice occurs in a sentence where the grammatical subject of a verb carries out some activity or process. The passive voice occurs in a sentence in which the grammatical subject of the verb is the goal or sufferer of the action expressed by the verb. In such a passive sentence the noun or noun phrase introduced by the preposition by is termed the agent. Changing the active to the passive involves rearrangement of two clause elements. The active subject becomes the passive agent and the active object becomes the passive subject. The preposition by is introduced before the agent. The active verb is changed to its past participle form and preceded by a form of the auxiliary be. The grammatical subject of a passive sentence can be a direct object, an indirect object, an object of a preposition, or a complement. In English no active sentence can be made into a passive sentence unless its verb is followed by either an NP, a PP, or a complement. That is, there must be an object to move into the subject position in the passive version. Generally, the verb must be transitive. In addition to this basic constraint, there are a number of other constraints on the conversion of active sentences to passive sentences. This study will discuss the definition of voice, formation of passive sentences, restrictions on passive formation, actional and statal passives, short and long passives, get passives, passive meaning and usage, and passives in complements following causative get and have.

5형식의 보문 연구

조남호 한국교통대학교 2020 한국교통대학교 논문집 Vol.55 No.-

Onions (1904) classified English predicates into five forms according to their structural patterns. The fifth form of the predicate consists of a verb, an object and a predicate adjective or noun. Many verbs take to clauses beginning with infinitives as complements. These nonfinite clauses may or may not have an overt subject. We can identify four types, each of which follows a particular group of verbs. Complements of the four types differ in whether they have an overt subject and, if not, what the subject is understood as being. More specifically they differ with regard to three questions: Is there an NP following the main clause verb? If so, is this NP the object of the main clause verb? What is the subject of the infinitive complement? The first type of infinitive complements is that of persuade verbs. A large number of verbs, such as advise, cause, compel, order, persuade, and tell belong to this type. These verbs are transitive, and, therefore, must have an NP object. The second type of infinitive complements is that of want verbs. This group includes arrange, expect, hope, need, plan, promise, want, and wish. In this type of complement, the NP after the verb want is not the object, but is instead the subject of the infinitive complement. The NP after promise is the object of promise, and the subject to the complement is missing but is understood as identical to the main clause subject. The third type of infinitive complements is that of believe verbs. A number of verbs, including acknowledge, believe, consider, and judge, have an infinitival complement that contains be plus an NP or an adjective. The NP after the verb is the subject of the complement, not the object of the verb. The fourth type of infinitive complements is that of make verbs. A few verbs, such as have, let, and make, take a complement with a bare infinitive. The NP after the verb is the subject of the complement. These verbs only permit passivization of the complement. The verb make is an exception since its only possible passive is closer to that of persuade. A group of perception verbs, including feel, hear, listen to, notice, observe, overhear, see, and watch, can be followed by bare infinitive or present participle complements. When the main clause has a perception verb, there are differences in interpretation between bare infinitive and present participle complements. The present participle complement expresses in-progress action. The activity is already in progress when it is perceived. However, in the bare infinitive complement its action is complete. The sentence with the bare infinitive complement is interpreted as simply a report of an action that took place. If the verb in the complement of perception verbs is a punctual achievement verb (i.e., a verb whose action ends as soon as it begins – bat, blink, hit, kick, shoot, slap, snap, strike, etc.) in a present participle complement its action will be interpreted as happening repeatedly, whereas in a bare infinitive complement, its action is understood as a single occurrence.

관 계 사 that

조남호 忠州大學校 2009 한국교통대학교 논문집 Vol.44 No.-

The debate about relative that, henceforth 'R-that', was started by Jespersen(1885). He drew attention to its similarity with the conjunction that. Furthermore, Jespersen(1924:85, 1927:165-8) called R-that a particle or a conjunction. Later, transformationalists argued that R-that was a complementizer. However, Quirk et al.(1985:366) included R-that in relative pronouns. This study will discuss the arguments for the conjunction and complementizer hypotheses. The present-day R-that is derived from the Middle English subordinator þat, which was a coalescence of the Old English indeclinable relative particle þe and the subordinator þœt. When the form þe dropped out at the end of thirteenth century, its function was taken over by þat.

영어의 초점구조

조남호 한국교통대학교 2015 한국교통대학교 논문집 Vol.50 No.-

In this study, I will discuss grammatical structures created through movement of constituents and/or other changes for reasons relating to presenting information, including some structures that depart substantially from the basic SVO word order of English. The sentence types discussed in this study have been referred to as ‘focus structures’ because they place certain elements of the basic version of the sentence in different positions in order to make them more prominent. In focus structures, there are cleft sentences, fronting and inversions. There are various ways of giving extra emphasis to one part of a sentence. One way is to use a ‘cleft sentence’ with it or what. This emphasizes particular words and expressions by putting everything into a kind of relative clause except the words we want to emphasize, making them stand out. These structures are called ‘cleft sentences.’ They are useful in writing because we cannot use intonation for emphasis in written language. Different constituents can become the focused elements in it clefts: subject and object NPs, place and time adverbs, prepositional phrases, etc. However, the predicate verb cannot be the focused element in an it cleft. The various objects of predicate verbs can usually become the focused elements of wh-clefts. In contrast to an it cleft, the verb or the verb phrase can also become the focused element in a wh-cleft. Affirmative sentences most often begin with the grammatical subject. If we move to the beginning of a sentence something that does not normally go there, this gives it extra emphasis and makes it ‘the topic.’ This kind of structure is called ‘fronting.’ Fronting usually moves the elements after the verb. Many adverbs and adverbial expressions can go at the beginning of a clause. This often happens when we are using the adverbs to structure a piece of narrative or a description. Inversion is necessary after some emphatic fronted adverbs and adverbial expressions. In this study, two types of inversions will be discussed: lexical and stylistic. Lexical inversions are inversions triggered by the presence of a particular word: a very few locative adverbs (here and there), negative adverbs (never, seldom, etc.), and conjunctions linking clauses (not only, nor, so, etc.). Stylistic inversions involves the utilization of an optional grammatical pattern, which enables a writer to achieve a stylistic effect. A fairly common type of stylistic inversion is one that is triggered by the deletion of if in hypothetical and counterfactual conditional sentences.

간접목적어 문형 연구

조남호 한국교통대학교 2019 한국교통대학교 논문집 Vol.54 No.-

An English sentence consists of two parts: the subject and the predicate. The predicate may consist of a verb alone or a verb together with other words. Onions (1904) classified English predicates into five forms according to their structural patterns. The fourth form of the predicate consists of a verb and two NPs. Many English verbs may be followed by two NPs. Direct and indirect objects in sentences may follow one of two patterns. The two patterns for sentences with indirect objects are the prepositional pattern and the dative movement pattern. Depending primarily on the verb, both patterns or only one pattern may be possible. The dative movement rule takes the indirect object in the prepositional pattern and moves it to the position between the verb and the direct object, while also deleting the preposition. Sometimes sentences with indirect objects can have only the propositional pattern or only the dative movement pattern. As a general rule, both the subject and the indirect object must be animate for both patterns to work. If this is not the case, sentences can generally take only one pattern. With some verbs, sentences with indirect objects may occur in only the dative movement pattern or, more commonly, only the prepositional pattern. Not all to dative verbs and for dative verbs can take the dative movement rule. Those that do not are restricted to the prepositional pattern.

고대영어 관계사절과 전치사좌초

조남호 忠州大學校 2010 한국교통대학교 논문집 Vol.45 No.-

This paper examined OE relative clauses and preposition stranding. Among others, se-type and þe-type relatives were compared and analyzed. In the constructions in which something remaining on the surface moved clearly, pied piping was obligatory. These were se-type relatives. In all constructions in which nothing moved overtly on the surface, propositions were stranded. These were þe-type relatives. Se-relatives were analyzed as involving movement of the demonstrative relative pronoun to the specifier position of CP. The reason is that the case of the pronoun was determined by the role of the relativized item in the lower clause and the pied piping of prepositions was obligatory. In þe-relatives, the þe itself was analyzed as a complementizer rather than a relative pronoun, since it was indeclinable and could not be preceded by a preposition. The þe-relatives were analyzed by Null Operator Movement.