17~18세기 전반 인삼무역의 변동과 개성상인의 활동

양정필 ( Yang Jeong-pil ) 제주대학교 탐라문화연구원 2017 탐라문화 Vol.0 No.55

조선후기 개성상인은 국내 상업활동뿐 아니라 국제 무역을 통해 크게 성장하였다. 본 연구는 17~18세기 전반기 개성상인의 국제무역 특히 인삼 무역을 고찰하였다. 조선후기 인삼 무역은 국내외 여건의 변화에 따라 큰 변동을 겪었다. 임진왜란 시기에는 明의 군인, 상인들이 직접 조선 영내로 들어와서 군사 활동 외에 상업에도 종사하였다. 그들은 다량의 인삼을 명으로 갖고 갔다. 임란 직후에는 조선에 들어온 명의 사신들이 인삼 획득에 혈안이 되었다. 그들이 징색해간 인삼은 막대하였다. 임란과 임란 직후의 인삼 무역은 명의 군사 지원이라는 조건 속에서 이루어진 특수한 형태였다. 명·청 교체기의 인삼 무역 역시 새로운 것이었다. 청의 발상지인 만주는 인삼 자생지였다. 후금 성장의 경제적 배경에는 인삼 교역이 있다. 따라서 후금은 조선에서 인삼을 수출하려 하였다. 당시까지 조선은 인삼 수출국이었는데 수입국이 된 것이다. 조선 인삼의 대 중국 수출이 부진해지자 조선의 인삼상인들은 일본으로 인삼 수출을 시도하였다. 당시까지 인삼의 對日수출은 극히 제한된 범위에서 이루어졌는데, 이때부터 대일 인삼 수출이 활기를 띠게 되었다. 이 시기에 활약한 대표적인 인삼 상인으로 개성상인을 들 수 있다. 당시 정부가 인삼관련 대책을 마련할 때마다 반드시 언급되는 곳이 개성이었다. 개성은 인삼 산지가 아님에도 언급된 이유는 개성상인들이 인삼 교역을 장악하고 있었기 때문이다. 1685년에는 국경을 넘어 만주에서 인삼을 채취하던 조선인이 청국 관리에게 放銃하여 상처를 입히는 사건이 발생하였다. 사안의 심중함을 인식한 조선 정부는 이듬해 인삼 채굴과 무역 모두를 금지하였다. 전면적인 인삼 금지령으로 인삼 채굴인들이 생계의 곤란을 겪는 문제가 발생하였다. 불법화되었음에도 인삼상인들의 활동이 멈춘 것도 아니었다. 결국 정부의 禁蔘정책은 차츰 이완되어 갔다. 1694년에는 부분적으로 인삼 채취를 허용하고, 1693년 무렵에는 동래의 왜관에서 인삼 禁令을 해제하고, 1707년에는 평안도와 함경도의 禁蔘도 해제하였다. 이에 인삼 무역은 다시 활기를 띠었다. 이 시기 인삼의 주요 수출국은 일본이었다. 1640년 무렵 허가된 대일 인삼 무역이 이 시기에 와서 만개한 것이다. 이러한 인삼 무역의 변동 속에서 개성상인은 핵심 인삼 상인으로 활동하였다. 그들은 인삼 산지에 직접 들어가서 인삼을 구입했을 뿐 아니라 그것을 직접 외국으로 수출하기도 하였다. 개성상인은 이러한 노력으로 인삼 무역 호황기의 최대 수혜자가 될 수 있었고, 조선후기를 대표하는 상인으로 성장할 수 있었다. Gaesung merchants in late Joseon period have significantly expanded their operations domestically and internationally. This research has examined the international trade of Gaesung merchants, notably ginseng trade, from 17th century to early 18th century. Ginseng trade in late Joseon era went through great transformations according to internal and external conditions. During the Hideyoshi invasion of Korea, Chinese soldiers and merchants came to Korea and engaged in commerce other than military operations. They eventually gathered large amounts of ginseng back to China. After the invasion came the envoys from Ming China, eager to obtain ginseng. They have also collected immensely as a result. During and in the aftermath of the Hideyoshi invasion, the nature of ginseng trade was uniquely determined under the condition of Chinese military aid. Ginseng trade during Ming-Qing transitional tmes of China witnessed dramatic change as well. Manchuria, the birthplace of Qing dynasty, also happened to be the wild growth place of ginseng. The economic background of Later Kum growth was none other than Ginseng trade, so that Kum tried to export ginseng to Joseon Korea. The position of Joseon was reversed, as it now became the importer of ginseng, which was the exact opposite of the previous. As the Joseon ginseng export to China was at a low ebb, the merchants tried to find a breakthrough by commercializing with Japan. Until then, ginseng export to Japan was strictly limited, but became more active from this time. During this period, Gaesung merchants played a major role of ginseng trade, as Gaesung was always mentioned whenever the Korean government made ginseng measures. Gaesung merchants were dominating ginseng trade, thus the reason why the city was treated important despite the fact that it was not a production center. In 1685, a Korean who crossed the border and collected ginseng in Manchuria shot and injured a Chinese official. Due to the seriousness of the incident, Joseon government banned both ginseng extraction and trade the following year. Because of an all out ginseng prohibition, ginseng gatherers faced immediate problems in their livelihood. This situation led to some illegal activities of ginseng traders, which eventually caused the government to loosen its prohibition. The Joseon court allowed partial extraction in 1694, lifted the ban in Japanese residential area of Busan around 1693, and cancelled the measure itself in Pyeongan and HamKyeong provinces in 1707. Such developments led to a reflowering of ginseng trade. At this age, Korea`s main exporting country was Japan, as ginseng trade permitted circa 1640 came to flourish during this epoch. During this time of ginseng trade transformation, Gaesung merchants were crucial in terms of its operation. Not only did they purchased ginseng directly from the production areas, they also exported the commodity directly to outside Korea as well. Thanks to their endeavors, Gaesung merchants became the prime benefactor of the booming ginseng trade, and ultimately managed to be the leading merchants of late Joseon period.

근대 개성 공씨가(孔氏家)의 삼포 경영과 자본 전환

양정필 ( Yang Jeong Pil ) 역사문제연구소 2018 역사문제연구 Vol.22 No.2

Gaesung’s Gong house enjoyed economic growth under Gong Eung-gyu(1857∼1933) during late Korean Empire era. He made money doing business outside Gaesung, and after returning to his hometown invested in ginseng industry and started running ginseng fields. Gong’s investment volume ranked fourth in Gaesung. Thanks to economic success, Gong Eung-gyu began to gain government posts in the 1900s, thereby becoming an influential figure in Gaesung community. Late 1900s witnessed a serious crisis in Gaesung’s ginseng industry, and Gong’s enterprise was no exception. Gong decided to pass down family business to his second son Gong sung-hak(1879∼1957), in order to combat such challenge. Gong Sung-hak directly cultivated seed ginseng, so as to secure its production, and actively supported ginseng policies of the colonial administration. Such measures indeed contributed to overcoming difficulties. He eventually became the top person in Gaesung Ginseng Industry Association(GGIA). GGIA was composed of ginseng field owners and was under the control of the colonial government. Gong’s business thrived, as his fields expanded dramatically in the 1910s. The contemporary Japanese imperialism practiced ‘ginseng farming license system’, and Gong’s booming business indicates that he has adapted well to Japanese directives. Gong rose to becoming one of the wealthiest man in Korea, as he made around 150,000 won annually circa-1920. Gong Sung-hak was obviously a millionaire, but he was also interested in modern business management. In the 1910s, he co-invested with other Gaesung entrepreneurs in modern companies, which experience drove him to set up his own company in 1920s-Gaesung Brewing Stock Company. However, Gong also employed Cha-in, which was the traditional commercial technique of Gaesung people, along with his investment in modern companies. Such method met another challenge as the business suffered during the Depression. Gong Jin-hang, son of Gong Sung-hak, therefore liquidated those companies. Gong Sung-hak’s capital contingent clearly showed authentic aspects of traditional Gaesung merchants. Through the case of Gong Sung-hak, this paper was able to ascertain that mega-owners of Gaesung ginseng fields were indeed cooperative to the doctrine of the Governer-general. However, these owners also combined ancient practices with modern ones, which facts signify that the generation of Gong Sung-hak, born around 1870s, took a transitional role in the transformation of Gaesung traders from traditional to modern.

월남 개성인의 정착과정과 개성(開城)의 유산(遺産)

양정필 ( Yang Jeong-pil ) 연세사학연구회 2018 學林 Vol.42 No.-

The armstice of the Korean War led to the incorporation of Gaesung into north Korea. Those who fled their hometown Gaesung to the south then became displaced, and immediately faced the task of settling in south Korean society. This paper aims to look into the role of Gaesung legacy on the settlement of these people in south Korean society. Gaesung legacy includes commercial tradition, ginseng cultivation, and strong internal solidarity and bond. These qualities played a major role during the settlement of uprooted inhabitants in south Korea. Due to significant commercial heritage, there were notable people of Gaesung origin who have engaged in entrepreneurship or business. Among those, some grew to the rank of conglomerates, others simply ran small shops in middle or small-size cities, which situations portray a wide range of spectrum. Such phenomenon were mainly attributed to their experiences in pre-division era of the peninsula, when many pursued mercantile operations. Also, Gaesung people of south Korea established companies and helped fellow immigrants. Their cooperation was demonstrated in the form of co-investments, or giving advice on corporate management. Ginseng cultivation attributed to the economic success of Gaesung people in south Korean society as well. Ginseng was almost their soul since Gaesung locals grew this medicinal plant since the 19th century. After their escape, Gaesung refugees in the south could not raise ginseng until 1957, when Gaesung Ginseng Industry Union was reorganized. Then, some made it their full-time occupation, while others merely acted as co-investors. To Gaesung refugees, ginseng was more than just a commodity, but a memory of everything they left behind in their home including families. Ginseng naturally was also their blessing because its cultivation brought them economic security. Impressive solidarity and bond of Gaesung people assisted fellow refugees who were poor or non-adult immensely in settling down in south Korea. In case of those teenagers who evacuated without parents, quite a few suffered economic hardships. Those who established themselves in the South aided those in need, and helped desperate hometown immigrants adjust well to south Korean society. Most of Gaesung people successfully settled in south Korea, and Gaesung legacy indeed was the dominant factor.

대한제국 시기 인삼업의 변화와 특징-개성 지역 이외의 인삼 재배지를 중심으로-

양정필 ( Yang¸ Jeong Pil ) 연세사학연구회 2021 學林 Vol.48 No.-

Until the Japanese colonial era, Kaesong[開成] was the main ginseng production area in Korea. Although the ginseng fields were small, ginseng was also grown outside of Kaesong. Researchers have had little interest in the production of ginseng in those regions. This article examines the changes and characteristics of the ginseng industry in those areas during the Korean Empire. Around 1898-99, ginseng fields in the North Gyeongsang Province, the North Jeolla Province, and the North Chungcheong Province represented more than 60,000 kan[間≒3.3㎡], while ginseng fields in the Kaesong area occupied more than 550,000 kan. Compared to the Kaesong area, the production in these other provinces accounted for slightly more than 10 percent. The size of the ginseng industry was small. However, the fact that ginseng was grown in many areas was important. The Korean Empire’s imperial family imposed taxes on ginseng fields. In order to collect this tax, ginseng fields throughout the country were examined. This study used the data gathered at that time. When the imperial family collected the taxes on ginseng fields, ginseng farmers protested. However, the imperial family enforced the collection of the taxes on the ginseng fields. As officials collected excessive ginseng tax, ginseng farmers found themselves struggling. The conflict over the taxes on the ginseng fields worsened the ginseng industry environment. Therefore, some ginseng farmers began to give up the cultivation of ginseng. As a result, by 1908, the size of ginseng fields had been reduced to less than half that in 1898-99. However, there was a difference in the change by province. Jeonbuk experienced less slump in the ginseng industry, while the production areas of the North Gyeongsang Province and the North Chungcheong Province decreased sharply. While Seongju-gun had been the largest mountainous ginseng region in 1898, by 1908, Geumsan-gun had become the biggest. Although the ginseng industry suffered a slump, ginseng was grown in many areas around 1898-1899. People in those areas had ginseng cultivation techniques, which reflected the spread of ginseng cultivation technology. These people could jump into the ginseng industry anytime the problem of cultivation funds was solved. This expansion of the base was the foundation for the development of ginseng in these regions.

19 세기 개성상인의 자본전환과 삼업자본의 성장

양정필(Jeong Pil Yang) 연세사학연구회 2002 學林 Vol.23 No.-

N/A

‘중국인삼’ 의 실체에 대한 비판적 고찰

양정필(YANG Jeong-pil),여인석(YEO In-sok) 대한의사학회 2003 의사학(醫史學) Vol.12 No.2

근대 개성상인의 사환제(使喚制)와 그 변화

양정필 ( Yang Jeong Pil ) 역사문제연구소 2015 역사문제연구 Vol.19 No.2

Gaesung merchants started to venture into commerce since the mid-15th century, and developed their unique business traditions through trial and error. Such traditions and conventions have contributed dearly to their maintaining market power in the city even during the colonial period. Among the commercial traditions of Gaesung merchants, there existed what is known as the `merchant reproduction system`. That system consisted of Sahwan, which was the first phase, and regional peddlers. This article deals with the Sahwan system. Gaesung Sahwan`s work was similar to regular ones, but it was distinct since it underwent organized and structured training process by Gaesung merchants to be raised as one of them. Thus Gaesung Sahwan was different from others in two aspects. First, there was an internal apprenticeship and promotion system by stages. This fact clearly indicates that Gaesung Sahwan was one of the systematic steps to reproduce local traders. Second, the relationship between Sahwan and storekeeper persisted even after the completion of the apprenticeship. If the storekeeper finds Sahwan with a promising future, he will economically support the junior until Sahwan can be independent and start his own business. Thanks to such aid, Sahwan was able to succeed as a merchant businessman. In the main body, two individuals, 李廷林 and 李會林, were examined as examples of such case. They went through Sahwan life in Gaesung during the colonial era, and were able to grow as traders with Gaesung identity. They eventually rose as prominent entrepreneurs in big business after the Korean War. Meanwhile, 1920s and 1930s witnessed the appearance of negative public opinion against Gaesung Sahwan system. This phenomenon was due to the fact that people began to recognize it as not merely a traditional reproduction system of merchants, but as a modern worker. They insisted that modern working standards should be applied to improve deteriorating conditions of the system. The system in fact dictated that Gaesung Sahwan was without pay for the first two or three years and had to suffer long-hour labor. Conventionally, such treatment was understood as a natural process as an apprentice to become a merchant. However, changing times made previous practices appear problematic. Both Sahwans and Gaesung mass media were also eager to expose such bad treatments and went on to correct them, which movement led to the gradual betterment of Sahwan living environment after mid-1930s. In this manner, Gaesung Sahwan was a significant legacy of the local traders, specially in terms of the initial stage of their reproduction system. Regardless of its limitations, this tradition continued until the Japanese colonial period, and continuously produced merchants whose identity could be traced back to Gaesung business, of which few then transformed themselves into modern entrepreurs by becoming conglomerators in south Korea after fleeing from the north.

삼국-신라통일기 인삼 생산과 대외교역

양정필(YANG Jeong-Pil),여인석(YEO In-Sok) 대한의사학회 2004 의사학(醫史學) Vol.13 No.2

대한제국기 개성지역 삼업(蔘業) 변동과 삼포민의 대응

양정필(Yang Jeong-Pil) 대한의사학회 2009 의사학(醫史學) Vol.18 No.2

1910년대 일제의 삼업(蔘業)정책과 개성 삼포주(蔘圃主)의 활동

양정필 ( Yang Jeong Pil ) 역사문제연구소 2010 역사문제연구 Vol.14 No.2

The Japanese Imperial authorities were well aware of the value of Jinseng products in Joseon, so they launched a monopoly system targeting red-steamed Jinseng in 1908. Yet with Japan`s economic intrusion, the Joseon Jinseng business was still in serious trouble, and in response to that the Japanese authorities decided to introduce loans to the Jinseng business owners in order to revitalize the entire enterprise. The amount of money that were loaned to the Jinseng producers was more than 100,000 Won every year. This loaning system did contribute to the rapid resurgence in Jinseng business in the 1910s. But this Jinseng business loan was merely a variation of the Indemnity payment that had earlier been granted to the Jinseng producers by the Daehan Empire. And the loaning itself was different in nature from any other subsidy that was provided by the Governor-General office. Most of all, the unique culture enjoyed by the Gaeseong region merchants also contributed to the recovery of the Jinseng business in general. In the mid-1910s, the Jinseng business soon recovered from earlier crises, and the size of their plants was enlarged. The Jinseng farm owners had annually provided the authorities with red-steamed Jinseng products since 1913, and acquired 500,000 Won every year. Their income was enormous. In the meantime, the Governor-General office obtained 1,000,000 Won every year by the said monopoly system. We can see why they were so eager to launch such system. Some of the major Jinseng producers served as influential figures in the Gaeseong regional community. Examined in this article are Son Bong-sang/孫鳳祥and Park Wu-hyeon/朴宇鉉, who were both born in the 1860s. Son Bong-sang had a rough childhood, but was raised amongst the Gaeseong merchant society`s unique reproduction system. During the Daehan Imperial period he was already a star in the Jinseng business community. He served as the President of the Jinseng Union for 20 years. `The Jinseng King` was his nickname. He was the biggest Jinseng producer of the 1910s, and raised 170,000 Won in 1921. His status in the Jinseng business at the time was absolute. In the meantime, Park Wu-hyeon was raised in a middle-class family,and inherited the business of his family, which he considerably enlarged. In 1921 he raised more than 150,000 Won, and in 1918 his property reached 500,000 Won. He was one of the central figures in the political and economic communities of the Gaeseong region during the end of the Joseon dynasty and the beginning of the Japanese Occupation period. He also actively involved himself in various companies and social organizations. The fact that he served as the Gaeseong Prefect from 1909 through 1912 alone shows his social status inside the Gaeseong region. Park was more aggressive in pursuing a political career than Son ever had. The closer he got with the Japanese Imperial authorities, he became more strongly subjected to their influences. In the 1910s he was already deeply involved in the Japanese Imperial ruling. Most of the Joseon people at the time, with the exception of a few capitalists from the early days of the Japanese Occupation period, were generally believed to have been experiencing problems both political and economic. Yet the Gaeseong region itself and the condition of the Gaeseong merchants never declined or went to bankruptcy, as we can see from the prosperity of their Jinseng business. They soon overcame the crisis, rapidly enlarged their plants and also accumulated capital. They were able to do so because they owned the product Jinseng, which managed to survive the competition with other imperial products. Yet the Gaeseong merchants sometimes differed in their political positions as well. While Park Wu-hyeon maintained a cooperative relationship with the Japanese authorities, Son Bong-sang had a much weaker relationship with the Japanese.