Policy based Autonomic Management using Control Loops & Reinforcement Learning in Machine-to-Machine Networks

Muhammad Shoaib Siddiqui 경희대학교 2012 국내석사

The rapid advancement in technology is replacing direct human interaction with machine to machine (M2M) communication. With the advent of autonomous organization of network & service, conventional networks are fast replaced by Machine-to-Machine (M2M) networks or Machine Type Communication (MTC). The success of such M2M networks depends on its human involvement at the least possible level. In this context, policy based network management (PBNM) has a huge potential to be used for MTC. In PBNM, predefined policies in the system can response automatically to the M2M service requests. These policies are defined by a system manager or a system expert or derived from business goals. However, the tremendous complexity of MTC has exponentially increased the management and operation expenses of M2M networks. Operators and system administrators are designing management systems that can manage them-selves in an autonomic way. This introduces a need of an Intelligent Network Management solution. As the main advantage of an M2M system is to reduce human participation, hence, the network management has to be autonomic. Thus the requirement is a Policy based Autonomic Network Management System (PBANM) for M2M network. Autonomic network management solutions are provided by proposing improvements in certain aspects, such as, improvement in the design of the conventional PBNM system to apply autonomics in the system by providing autonomic control loops, bio-inspired autonomic algorithms, swarm intelligence, and mechanism devised from autonomic nervous system in living bodies. In this dissertation, we have proposed and develop two autonomic control loops for enabling autonomics in a policy based network management system. By applying reinforcement learning techniques, we have devised algorithms for enabling self-configuration for managed devices, and self-adaptation for optimizing existing policies. The self-configuration is enabled by iterating through Optimum Configuration Loop, which provides autonomic configuration for the devices for optimal performance. The self-adaptation is enabled by iterating through Policy Feedback Adjustment Loop, which work towards finding the enhanced parameters for the policy actions. For finding the optimum policy, we have developed a reinforcement learning algorithm, named goal differential correction-learning (GDC-Learning). We upgraded the well renowned Q-learning algorithm by considering a goal differential parameter for error correction, which enables fast convergence to the optimal policy as compared to the Q-learning algorithm. As a complete solution, we have designed a proposed system for Policy based Autonomic Network Management (PBANM) of M2M network containing two domains of machines, namely, wireless sensor networks (WSN) and smart devices (smart phones, pads, tablets, etc.). We have designed a Policy Information Model specifically designed for M2M network and services, which is light-weight and context-aware. For enabling the autonomics in the PBANM; the Autonomic Control Loops for self-organization in the network are embedded in the existing PBNM architecture. The practicality of the proposed system is illustrated by the realization of a Policy Server and an Autonomic Manager for enabling PBANM along with an adapter for simultaneously management of sensor networks and smart phones (and devices). Simulations are performed for the evaluation of the GDC-learning algorithm, and autonomic control loops.

온라인 기사의 베스트 댓글이 정책에 대한 태도에 미치는 영향 : 댓글 공감/비공감 수의 휴리스틱 작용을 중심으로

이세영 경희대학교 대학원 2020 국내석사

본 연구는 실험을 통해 온라인 정책 기사의 베스트 댓글 방향성과 베스트 댓글 강도에 따라 정책과 정책 기사에 대한 이용자 태도의 차이가 발생하는지 살펴보았다. 특히 기존 댓글 연구에서 활발히 활용되지 않은 휴리스틱-체계적 모델(HSM)을 적용함으로써, 베스트 댓글의 속성(방향성, 강도)이 온라인 뉴스 이용자의 정보처리 과정에서 어떤 경로를 통해 처리되는지 알아보았다. 연구는 선행 연구를 바탕으로 상황 관여도(고/저), 베스트 댓글 방향성(긍정/부정), 베스트 댓글의 강도(약/강)를 독립변인으로 채택했으며, 정책에 대한 태도와 정책 기사에 대한 태도를 종속변인으로, 정책에 대한 사전태도는 통제변인으로 설정했다. 2020년 4월 17일부터 4월 22일까지 만 19~34세 청년 350명을 대상으로 온라인 실험이 진행되었고, 관여도에 따라 1차로 분류된 집단에 대해 4개의 실험 조작물이 무선할당되었다. 최종 분석에는 불성실한 응답을 제외한 317개의 응답이 사용되었다. 정책에 대한 사전태도를 공변인으로한 공분산분석(ANCOVA) 결과, 고관여 상황의 경우 베스트 댓글의 체계적 속성으로 설정한 베스트 댓글 방향성의 주효과가 정책에 대한 태도에서는 통계적으로 유의미했으나, 정책 기사에 대한 태도에서는 유의미하지 않았다. 즉, 베스트 댓글의 방향성이 고관여 정책에 대한 태도에는 체계적 속성으로써 유의미한 영향을 미쳤지만, 정책 기사 전반에 대한 태도에서는 체계적 속성으로 고려되지 않았다. 또한 휴리스틱 속성으로 설정한 베스트 댓글 강도의 주효과는 정책과 정책 기사에 대한 태도 모두에서 발견되지 않았는데, 이를 통해 고관여 상황에서 휴리스틱 속성(베스트 댓글 강도)이 체계적 속성(베스트 댓글 방향성)보다 태도에 더 큰 영향을 미치지 않는다는 것을 확인했다. 한편 저관여 상황의 경우 베스트 댓글 방향성뿐만 아니라 휴리스틱 속성으로 설정한 베스트 댓글 강도 역시 정책과 정책 기사에 대한 태도에 유의미한 효과를 미치지 않는 것으로 나타났다. 즉, 저관여 정책에 대한 정보처리 과정에서 베스트 댓글 강도의 영향력은 베스트 댓글 방향성보다 크지 않으며, 베스트 댓글 강도가 휴리스틱 단서로 활용되지 않음을 확인했다. This experimental research explored whether the direction of best comments in online policy articles and the intensity of best comments resulted in differences in user attitudes toward policies and policy articles. In particular, by applying a heuristic-systematic model(HSM) that was not often used in comment studies, this research explored how the attributes(direction, intensity) of best comments are handled in the process of information processing by online news users. Based on prior research, the study adopted the degree of involvement in the situation(high/low), the direction of best comments(positive/negative), and the intensity(weak/strong) of best comments as independent variables, the attitude toward policy and the attitude toward policy articles were set as dependent variables and the pre-attitude toward policy was controlled. From April 17 to April 22, 2020, an online experiment was conducted on adults aged 19 to 34(N = 350), and four experimental manipulations were randomly assigned to groups classified as primary according to their level of involvement. The final analysis used 317 responses, excluding unreliable responses. As a result of the ANCOVA(Analysis of covariance) with the pre-attitude toward the policy as a covariate, the main effect of the best comment direction which set as the systematic attribute of the best comments was statistically significant in the attitude toward the policy, but not significant effect on the attitude toward the policy article. In other words, the direction of best comments had a significant effect on attitude toward high involved policy as a systematic attribute, but not on attitude toward policy articles. In addition, the main effect of the best comment intensity which set as the heuristic cue was not found in both the attitude toward the policy and the attitude toward the policy article, which confirmed that the Heuristic attribute(best comment intensity) does not have a greater impact on the attitude than the systematic attribute(best comment direction). Meanwhile, in the low involved situation, not only the direction of the best comments but also the intensity of the best comments which set as the Heuristic attribute had no significant effect on the attitude toward policy and its attitude toward the policy articles. In other words, in the information processing on low involved policies, the influence of the best comment intensity is not greater than the direction of the best comment, and it can be seen that the best comment intensity is not used as a heuristic clue.

政策決定 過定上의 理論模型에 對한 評價

홍성기 전남대학교 교육대학원 1981 국내석사

Policy-making means a decision that government decides on future scheme or an alternative of action identifying what fulfills public interest by a planned and designed method involving complex and dynamic processes. In other words, the policy-making is a process to select special alternative from the various alternatives available to accomplish the government’s objective. The alternative selected can be said to be the action in which the government wishes to proceed. The purpose of this paper is to review the theory and the practice on policy-making. But I only paid the attention on introducing and analyzing some normative models of public policy-making because of limiting time and volume. Theoretical model approaches on policy-making and very diversely systematized, and reveal considerable differences of quality or level in content and assertion. They are also influenced by diverse variables (decision-maker, structure, environment) and participants. Theoretical models of policy-making on the whole, can be categorized as : 1) rationality model 2) satisfying model 3) incremental mudding through model 4) mixed scanning model 5) Optimal model. * Rationality model. This model is based on the assumption that any decision-maker makes policy on terms of reason and interest, and that the human-being is omnipotent. * Saisfying model. This model uses an empirical and realistic approach with which we can make a desirable decision-making model by finding out uniformity or regularity among many cases collected by means of behavioral sciences. * Incremental, mudding through model. According to this model, quest and analysis of policy alternatives are fundamentally regarded as a process in which existing policy is compared and analyzed in the light of the status que. * Mixed scanning model. Rationality model, as policy-making model among others, presupposes too strict and unreal conditions in contrast to the over conservative incremental model, so the mixed scanning model insists on incoporating two models into one. * Optimal model. This model covers defects by acknowledging the existence of super-rationality but fails to present an accurate definition and role of super-rational factor in policy-making. The basis(or root and branch) of main variable and theory deployment which brings about differences from each model presented here is related to the rationality problem in the policy-making process. Accordingly, I maintain that limited rationality and the incremental approach is desirable to separate the optimal retional, process from the rational and realistic model. The normative or idealistic model(approach means a model approaches policy-making on terms of rationality, and the others are called the realistic or empirical approach. But on the assumption that presumption end hypotheses of many models are still inapplicable to society, I expect Public Administration will develop a new theory which can overcome the unreality of the existing policy-making models.

(A) case study of the policy effectiveness in Chinese film and TV drama production industry

Li, Lu Sungkyunkwan University 2018 국내박사

Recently, Chinese film industry and TV drama industry have been making rapid progress with the increase of public needs for cultural contents in China. Government play an important role in the development of Chinese film industry and TV drama industry by guided and intervened by government policies. The present study explored the policy effectiveness in Chinese film production industry and TV drama production industry by two case studies. Two policies was analyzed in the present study. The selected policy in film industry is ‘the release of control of US movie and Taiwan movie’ in 2012. The selected policy in drama industry is ‘one drama two channel’ policy in 2015.The present study used the index in SCP framework as criterion, analyzed the structure, conduct, and performance of the market of Chinese film production industry and TV drama production industry in the past few years. In the film production industry, the selected policy have some temporary influences on film production industry. But it does not show a long-term effect on film production industry. The concentration level and barriers to entry is very low and decreases in general. Vertical integration of Chinese film industry increase quickly. The private company is more sensitive to the policy and changed its strategy. The merger actions also increase under this policy. The performance of film production industry rises rapidly as the development of economy and the increasing consumption on cultural content products. In the TV drama production industry, the competition in TV drama production industry is fierce. The concentration level of TV drama production industry and barriers to entry are very low. The state-owned company’s strategy is to increase the budget and expand the business to face the challenge from ‘one drama two channel’ policy. Private company choose to find the other broadcaster--the Internet video website. The merger actions increase increase constantly but the ‘one drama two channel’ policy impede it to some extent because of future uncertainty after the implement of the policy. The performance increases every year but the growth rate decline since 2014. Academically this study fills the blank of researches about policy influence in China’s cultural industries by using criteria of SCP framework. Practically, the present study helps the policy makers to verify their policy influence and inspires marketers that how to adjust firm strategies. This study could serve as the basis for future research on the economic and policy analysis of Chinese film industry and TV drama industry.

노무현 정부와 이명박 정부의 노인복지정책 비교 : 소득보장정책을 중심으로

고병갑 전북대학교 일반대학원 2018 국내박사

The rapid increase of the elderly population due to the aging brought about the political power of the elderly generations, and their grouping led to the competition for securing the voters among the parties, pushing the controversy of the political ideology and causing mass production of popular policies. Therefore, the elderly welfare policy that reflects the political tendency of the ruling party is not established, but the elderly welfare policy which is advantageous for securing the number to be linked to the vote is announced. In addition, the surge in the elderly population has caused social problems in various aspects such as the economy, society, and culture, as well as political aspects, and various government policies and regulations have been revised and revised. This study compares the welfare policies for the elderly between the two governments based on the liberal Roh Moohyun government and the conservative Lee Myungbak government in Korea. The comparative studies of the two previous governments mainly focused on North Korea policy, diplomacy and security policy, and some existing welfare - related studies tended to analyze that Lee Myungbak government's policy was less effective than that of Roh Moo Hyun government. In this study, the scope of policy comparisons between the two governments is narrowed down to be compared with the elderly welfare, focusing on the direct income guarantee policy, and the three categories of national pension policy, basic livelihood security policy, This study consisted of a longitudinal analysis and a cross-sectional analysis: longitudinal analysis of how the three categories of policy have changed; cross-sectional analysis of the two areas of national pension policy, national basic livelihood security policy, pension fund and basic old - age pension. As the analysis criteria of this study according to the comparison object, scope, and analysis method, four items of policy object, financial resources, delivery system, and salary were used. The first analysis criterion: the scope of application by policy. In other words, it was compared with whether the philosophy of operation was universalism or selectiveism and what criteria were set for the target person. The national pension policy is based on the principle of universalism of both governments, and is settled as a citizen of the country living in the country from 18 to 60 years old, and is subject to income guarantee from age 60 or older. The characteristics of the succession of the policy can be found in that the requirements and nationality requirements are the same. In contrast, the National Basic Livelihood Security Policy sets the scope of coverage for both the government and the government under the operating philosophy of selectivism, with both the conditions of the dependent obligor and the condition of the income recognition. In the same way, In addition, it can be said that the succession of policy or the maintenance of policy. As the Roh Moohyun government's age pension is 65 years old or older and the income is below the amount prescribed by the Presidential Decree, the basic old-age pension is set as the criteria for selecting the elderly (age 70 or older and later 65 years or older) And that both governments have adopted the ideology of selective operation. As a result, the two governments showed that the policy orientation of the elderly income protection policy showed path dependence regardless of the political ideology. Second analysis criterion: financing as the basis of comparative analysis. The principle of the national pension policy is funded by a tripartite tripartite burden as one of the social insurance policies applied in both governmental periods. As a result of analyzing how much the budget of the elderly welfare sector is allocated and executed, the growth rate of government spending is 6.56% for the Roh Moo-hyun government and 6.58% for the Lee Myung-bak government, Respectively. However, when the average ratio of welfare spending to government spending is averaged, the growth rate of the Roh Moohyun government is 12.12% and the Lee Myungbak government 8.69%. Although both governments showed a higher growth rate of welfare expenditure than the growth rate of government expenditure, the growth rate of welfare expenditure was higher in Roh Moohyun government than in Lee Myungbak government. In terms of the increase of expenditure budget, both governments showed tendency to welfare expansion, showing progressive tendency irrespective of political ideology, showing the dependence of policy on path. Third analysis criterion: delivery system. The National Pension System and the National Pension Corporation played a major role in the management and operation of the national pension policy, and the heads of local governments played a role as a guarantor for the National Basic Livelihood Security Policy. The national pension scheme was administered by the state or local governments, and the basic old-age pension was managed and operated by the Minister of Health and Welfare or the head of the local government. In conclusion, the third analysis criterion was the area with the least differentiation among the four criteria. Fourth analysis criterion: salary. Income security is mainly provided for cash benefits. Unlike the Roh Moohyun government, the Lee Myungbak government reorganized the old-age pension as a more realistic aspect, removing the term "statutory depreciable old-age pension" or "old-age pension", and expressing the different ways of payment according to the subscription period as a dynamic sentence. In the end, it was not possible to find a link with the political ideology in the analysis of salary criteria, and it showed that the Lee Myungbak government had a tendency of policy sympathy and popularism in that it showed following policy level. This is due to the fact that the situation variables such as the increase of the elderly population and the political power of the elderly group played a role in the determinants of the salary. Unlike the ideological assessment that the Roh Moohyun government and the Lee Myungbak government were each a liberal government and a conservative government, the policy orientation toward the elderly income guarantee policy showed the policy consensus showed path dependence and the policy succession. In terms of the delivery system, there was little difference between the two governments, and even the Lee Myungbak government showed policy sympathy and popularism. This tendency is related to the situation variables such as the surge of the elderly population and the resulting political empowerment of the elderly group. Both Roh Moohyun government and Lee Myungbak government have expanded policy targets and increased the size of the budget. However, there was also a problem that it was a passive policy limited to what to provide for the elderly generations. Nowadays, the ideological competition and the regional conflict are all threatening the nation and the society. In order to more aggressively approach the 'generation conflict', which is the subject of ultimate social integration, from the precautionary perspective, it is necessary to concentrate on the improvement of the income guarantee policy of the elderly, which is the most basic of the welfare policies of the elderly. Ultimately, the two governments have not tried, but now the elderly generation, which is the policy target of the elderly welfare policy, should be a society that can stand alone as a subject of life without being an object of support. To this end, the agenda should be changed to guarantee the income of the elderly as much as the income of "how much to pay" to elderly people.

Policy Coherence for Development (PCD) of South Korea’s North Korean Cooperation Policy : Focusing on North Korean Development Cooperation and Economic Cooperation Policy

황지희 서울대학교 대학원 2018 국내석사

As the world economy is becoming more interdependent, countries become more prone to influences from domestic as well as foreign policies of other states. The problem of interdependency is that, development interests of developing countries are easily undermined by developed countries regardless of whether they intended or not. Therefore, demands for coordination of policies with global development goals have been raised constantly. Out of this context, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has proposed a concept of policy coherence for development (PCD). The general objective of PCD is to enhance coherence between development policies and other policies with regards to the development objectives. The importance of PCD has been continuously emphasized by the OECD, and OECD DAC member countries’ progress in PCD is examined through peer reviews. South Korea’s PCD in development policies has also been reviewed in its 2012 DAC peer review, and was given recommendations for improvement. However, since South Korea’s North Korean aid policies are not classified as ODA, PCD is a relatively new concept in its North Korean policies. Given the fact that South Korea has been one of the largest donors and trade partners of North Korea in the past two decades, policy coherence and considerations for North Korea’s development objectives are necessary. In aid of that, this thesis evaluated the PCD of ROK’s North Korean development policies, with a focus on the policy coherence between aid and non-aid policies. Through the research, it was concluded that despite the existence of policy coherence in North Korean policies, South Korea lacks concerns for DPRK’s development objectives. In other words, South Korea’s policies towards North Korea do not fulfil the standards of policy coherence for development, and improvements are needed, particularly in terms of promoting development interests of its neighbour in the North.

Effect of Ambiguity on Policy Implementation: Comparative Analysis of South Korean Refugee Policy Failure and German Success

강나경 서울대학교 대학원 2021 국내석사

The refugee policy of a state has been studied as an outcome of its domestic political decision. Existing research found two patterns in states’ refugee acceptance: acceptance of refugees for its national economic interests or reluctance of refugees for the fear of disruption of a state’s ethnic homogeneity. However, a state’s refugee policy is not simply an output of domestic politics, but it is an outcome of constant tensions with the principles and norms of the global refugee regime. Considering its policy formation structure with its relations to the international refugee regime, this research applies a modified model of Matland to shed light on the effect of policy ambiguity. It compares the two countries’ refugee policies in the period of each country’s refugee crisis by establishing a firm basis of international refugee regime: South Korean refugee policy (2018-2020), as a case of a policy failure, contrary to German refugee policy (2015-2016), a case of policy success. South Korean policy failure is prompted by a cloud-like refugee status determination process and their access to legal entitlements due to deliberate policy ambiguity. This ambiguity largely appears in discord with the international refugee regime in its definition and categorization in the refugee act. Three major elements prompting policy ambiguity are found: large discretion to the implementation authority, legal fragmentation and contradiction in domestic laws, and the lack of available resources. Conversely, Germany’s clock-like refugee status determination process and their access to legal entitlements fully endorse the international refugee regime’s norms and principles. Moreover, it further crystallized and specified potential ambiguity in the process of internalization in the domestic legal sphere and amendment process. Finally, this research’s finding draws scholarly attention to the necessity to address the effect of deliberate ambiguity on policy failure in the South Korean refugee act by seeking German asylum act as a policy learning model for lowering ambiguity via the legislative process. 난민정책은 국내정치의 결과로 주로 연구되어 왔다. 기존연구에서는 난민정책의 두 가지 패턴을 확인했다. 먼저 일부 국가들은 경제적 측면을 고려하여 국익을 위해 난민을 수용하며 다른 국가들은 민족동질성 파괴를 우려하며 수용을 거부한다. 그러나 한 국가의 난민 정책이 단순히 해당 국가의 국내정치적 결과인 것만은 아니다. 난민정책은 국제 난민레짐의 규범 및 원칙과의 끊임없는 긴장의 산물이기도 하다. 따라서 본 연구는 국제레짐과의 연관성 속에서 정책형성구조를 고려하여 매틀랜드의 수정된 모델을 난민정책에 적용함으로써 모호성이 난민정책에 야기하는 영향을 조명한다. 국제난민체제를 기준으로 사회경제지수와 문화민족동질성은 유사하지만 정책모호성에서 차이를 보이는 한국 (2018~2020)의 실패와 독일 (2015~2016년)의 성공 사례를 비교한다. 한국의 실패는 의도적 정책모호성이 야기한 모호성이 난민지위결정과정과 지위 문제에서 비롯된다. 이러한 정책모호성은 난민법의 정의와 분류에서 국제난민체제와의 불협화음을 보인다. 정책모호성을 야기한 세 가지 요소로는 광범위한 재량권, 다른 국내법과의 충돌, 가용 자원의 부족이 확인되었다. 이와 반대로 독일은 시계처럼 명확하고 체계적인 난민지위결정과정과 지위체계를 운영하며 국제난민체제의 규범과 원칙을 준수했다. 뿐만 아니라, 혼란의 여지가 있는 조항들은 국내법제화 및 개정 과정에서 잠재적 모호성을 없애고 명확히 했다. 이러한 본 연구의 결과는 현재 한국 난민정책의 의도적 모호성이 난민 정책실패에 끼친 영향을 해소하기 위한 학계 주목의 필요성을 시사하며, 입법과정을 거쳐 모호성을 낮춰온 독일의 난민정책을 정책학습의 모델로 확인한다.

Policy compliance of resource providers in sharing economy : focused on the role of intermediary and characteristics of sharing accommodation providers

박수경 Graduate School, Yonsei University 2017 국내박사

사용하지 않는 유휴자원을 가까운 사람들 간 나누거나 거래하는 행위는 오랫동안 인류와 함께해왔다. 그러나 정보통신기술과 네트워크의 발전은 일상적으로 파편화되어 존재하는 유휴자원을 쉽고 정확하게 거래할 수 있도록 하였다. 전통 소유경제와 공유경제의 차별적 핵심은 자원의 수요자와 공급자를 실시간으로 연결시키는 플랫폼 사업자의 존재이다. 공유경제 플랫폼 사업자는 웹 사이트 혹은 모바일 어플리케이션을 통하여, 유휴자원을 보유한 공급자가 자원의 정확한 정보를 등록하게하고 수요자가 쉽게 정보에 접근할 수 있게 하였다. ‘방 한 칸’이나 ‘자동차의 뒷 좌석’을 제공할 수 있는 개인은 전통 소유경제에서는 사업자로서 숙박업이나 운수업이 불가능하였다. 사업을 위하여 필요한 수요자 확보나 광고 등 불가결한 사업기반 활동에 대한 투자가 어려웠기 때문이다. 하지만 공유경제 플랫폼 사업자의 등장은 진입장벽을 낮춰주었고, ‘작은’ 자원으로도 숙박업 혹은 운수업이 가능하게 하였다. 이는 그 동안 경제활동에서 소외되었던 주부, 노인, 비취업자 등의 비경제활동인구에게 경제활동의 기회가 되었다. 그 결과 공유경제 시장은 급속히 성장하였으나, 동시에 많은 부정적인 면이 노출되었다. 가장 표면적으로 드러나는 문제는 자원 공급자가 시장과 정책에 대한 지식이 부족한 상태에서 서비스 제공업을 수행함으로써 나타나는 문제로, 자원 공급자가 정부가 요구하는 요건을 충족하지 않고 미신고 영업을 하는 것이다. 정부는 자원 공급자가 일정 요건을 충족한 후 면허를 취득할 것을 권고하고 있다. 그러나 면허를 취득하고 자원을 공급하는 공급자는 전체의 30%미만으로 추산되고 있으며, 그 결과 공유경제 자원 공급자의 수 및 거래 규모에 대한 정확한 파악이 이루어지지 않고 있다. 이는 정책의 대상집단인 자원 공급자가 정부의 정책을 따르지 않는 것으로, 이는 정책불응(policy non-compliance)이라 정의된다. 본 연구에는 이러한 문제의식에서 시작하여, 정책 대상집단인 자원 공급자의 특성과 정책에 대한 인식을 분석하고, 이들의 정책순응을 유도할 수 있는 기재를 연구하고자한다. 본 연구는 이러한 현상이 가장 두드러지게 발생하고 있는 공유 숙박업을 연구 대상으로 선정하였다. 연구문제는 다음과 같다. 첫째 한국에서 공유경제에 참여하고 있는 자원 공급자의 특성은 무엇이며, 이들은 공유경제와 관련된 정부 정책에 대하여 어떻게 인식하고 있는가? 둘째, 자원 공급자의 정책순응과 불응에 영향을 미치는 요인은 무엇이며, 각 요인에 대한 평가가 어떻게 정책순응의도에 영향을 미치는가? 최근 공유경제와 관련된 다양한 연구가 수행되고 있으나, 수요자 중심의 연구가 대부분이며 자원 공급자 측면에서 수행된 연구는 매우 부족하다. 이에 본 연구에서는 질적 연구방법과 양적 연구방법을 모두 활용하여 두 가지 연구문제를 심층적으로 해결하고자 하였다. 첫 번째 연구문제에 대한 답은 질적 연구방법인 심층인터뷰를 통하여 도출하였다. 먼저, 정책순응과 관련된 선행연구를 검토하였다. 정책 순응에 영향을 미치는 요인을 유목화하고, 공유경제의 등장에 따라 제기되고 있는 이슈를 탐색한 후 유사한 문제를 다룬 비공식 경제활동의 정책순응 연구와 소규모 사업자의 정책순응 연구를 고찰하였다. 합리적 선택이론(rational choice theory)과 억제이론(deterrence theory)을 근거이론으로 차용하고, 해당 이론이 공유경제에서 어떻게 전개되고 있는가를 탐색하였다. 이를 기반으로 공유경제 자원 공급자 즉, Airbnb를 통하여 숙박 공유업에 참여하고 있는 호스트 21인을 대상으로 심층인터뷰를 수행하였다. 두 번째 연구문제에 대한 답은 양적 연구방법인 설문조사를 통하여 도출하였다. 선행연구 검토와 심층 인터뷰 결과를 토대로 연구모델의 변수를 상정하였으며, 공유 숙박업에 참여하고 있는 251명을 대상으로 설문조사를 수행하였다. 합리적 선택이론을 차용함으로써 자원 공급자의 정책순응 결정은 그들의 비용-편익 계산에서 비롯된다고 가정하고, 비용-편익 인식의 선행인자를 규명하였다. 검증결과, 순응의도(Intention to Comply)에는 순응비용(Cost of Compliance)과 불응비용(Cost of Non-compliance)에 대한 인식이 모두 유의한 영향을 미쳤다. 순응비용으로 상정한 업무방해(Work Impediment)와 업무안정성(Work Stability) 모두 유의한 영향을 미쳤다. 본 연구는 억제이론을 통하여 순응을 유도할 수 있는 방안을 탐색하고자 하였는데, 이는 공유경제의 차별적 특성인 플랫폼 사업자의 존재가 그 동안 정책연구에서 대상집단 불응의 주요 기재로 제기된 정보의 비대칭성(information asymmetric) 문제를 해결할 수 있을 것이라 가정한 것이다. 특정 플랫폼 사업자를 통하여 모든 거래가 수행되는 공유경제 특유의 매커니즘은 정책집행자와 대상집단간의 정보의 비대칭성을 해소하고 대상집단이 순응을 결정하게 하는 완전한 정보(perfect information)로 작용할 수 있다. 이에, 본 연구에서는 공유경제 플랫폼 사업자의 개입이 정부와 대상집단간의 정보의 비대칭성을 해소시키고 거래비용을 줄여줄 수 있음을 제시하고자 하였다. 억제이론을 기반으로 공유경제 자원 공급자의 불응비용을 형성하는 선행인자를 검증한 결과는 다음과 같다. 중간매개집단인 플랫폼 사업자의 패널티(Platform Penalty)와 플랫폼 사업자를 통한 적발가능성(Platform Detectability)에 대한 대상집단의 인식은 불응비용으로 인식되었다. 선행 연구에서 논의된 바 있는 정부의 역할 중 정부의 금전적 처벌(Government Sanction)은 불응비용으로 인식되었으나, 정부의 적발가능성(Government Detectability)에 대한 인식이 불응비용에 미치는 영향은 통계적으로 유의하지 않았다. 이러한 결과는 기존 정책순응 연구에서 그 영향력이 논의된 바 있으나 이론으로만 그쳤던 중간매개집단의 역할을 상정하고 이를 실증적으로 검증하였다는데 의의를 갖는다. 이어, 본 연구에서는 자원 공급자의의 특성인 ‘순수한 목적의 비전문적인 공유자’와 ‘전문적인 사업자’인지에 따라 순응과 불응의 비용-편익에 대한 인식이 상이할 것이라 가정하였다. 자원 공급자의 전문적 사업성 여부를 조절 변수로 상정하여, 이들의 특성에 따라 정책순응과 불응의 비용 인식이 순응의도에 미치는 영향이 상이함을 규명하였다. 검증 결과 비전문적 공유자일수록 전문적 사업자에 비하여 정책순응의 비용에 대한 인식과 순응의도간의 유의한 영향관계를 가지고 있는 것으로 나타났다. 이는 공유경제의 건강한 발전을 위해서는 비전문적 공유자가 부담으로 느끼고 있는 순응비용을 낮추어주어야 함을 시사하는 결과이다. 자원 공급자의 전문적 사업성 여부가 불응비용 인식과 순응의도에 영향을 미친다는 가설은 통계적으로 유의하지 않아 기각되었다. 본 연구는 정책순응을 설명하는데 있어 오랫동안 기반 이론의 역할을 해온 합리적 선택이론과 억제이론을 차용하여 이론의 확장성을 제고하였다. 합리적 선택을 차용한 정책순응 연구의 최근 경향은 개인의 상태(status)와 지위에 따라 순응과 불응의 비용-편익인식이 순응의도에 미치는 영향이 상이함을 규명하는 것이다. 이에 본 연구에서는 대상집단의 참여 특성과 이들의 순응 조건에 따라 비용-편익의 인식과 순응의도가 달라진다는 것을 실증적으로 규명하였다. 또한 억제이론에서 제기된 제재와 적발가능성의 차원을 새롭게 제시하고 규명하였다는데도 그 학문적 시사점이 있다. 선행연구를 검토한 결과 억제이론의 핵심 요소인 제재의 방식과 제재의 확실성이 순응과 불응에 미치는 영향이 더욱 다차원적으로 논의되어야 함을 확인하였다. 본 연구에서는 공식 정책집행자인 정부뿐만 아니라 중개매개집단이 순응을 유도하는 주체로 작용할 수 있음을 규명하였다. 구체적으로 중개매개집단은 정책집행자의 금전적 처벌인 벌금 외에 대상집단에게 비금전적 처벌인 패널티를 부과하는 방식으로 정책순응 의도에 개입하였다. 또한 대상집단은 정부뿐만 아니라 중개매개집단 또한 자신의 불응을 적발할 수 있는 주요한 주체로 인지하고 있었다. 본 연구결과가 갖는 시사점은 다음과 같다. 인터넷의 발전으로 누구나 자신의 자원을 쉽게 빌려줄 수 있는 시대가 도래하였다. 그러나 현행 정책은 인터넷이 보급되기전 전통 소유경제의 민박, 게스트하우스 등을 기준으로 고려되었기에 현실과 맞지 않는다는 주장이 제기되고 있다. 신 산업을 옛 규제로 통제하려다 보니 여러 가지 문제가 생긴다는 지적도 존재한다. 정책집행에서 순응과 불응이 중요한 이유는 불응이 초래된 정책은 도입 당시 의도한 목표달성이 어렵기 때문이다. 공유경제의 자원 공급자는 자유의지에 의하여 의사결정을 하는 개인이기에, 자원 공급자가 정책과 규제를 스스로 준수할 수 있도록 정책을 설계하고, 유도해야한다. 본 연구결과는 자원 공급자들이 순응할 수 있는 주요 기재로 플랫폼 사업자를 제시하였다. 플랫폼 사업자의 적절한 개입은 정부가 정책을 집행함에 있어서 발생하는 정보의 비대칭성을 해결하고, 대상집단인 호스트들을 감독하는데 소요되는 거래비용을 낮춰줄 수 있다. 따라서 정부는 플랫폼 사업자의 개입과 같이 순응을 유도할 수 있는 기재를 검토하여 적절히 반영해야한다. 아울러 산업의 장기적인 발전을 위하여 플랫폼 사업자가 적절히 개입함으로써 사회적 부작용을 최소화하는 노력을 시행해야 한다. 일례로, 공유경제의 진입장벽이 낮은 것을 기회로 삼은 전통 소유경제 산업의 종사자들이 판매채널 다양화를 위하여 공유경제 플랫폼으로 유입된 것은 공유경제가 기존 산업과 가장 크게 갈등을 야기하고 있는 부분이다. 플랫폼 사업자는 ‘순수한 목적의 비전문적인 공유자’와 ‘전문적인 사업자’를 식별하고, 공유자에게는 정책순응의 부담을 줄여줌으로써 순응을 유도하고 사업자는 적절한 억제를 통하여 이들이 정책에 불응하는 것을 방지할 수 있다. 산업의 발전을 위해서는 플랫폼 사업자의 역할이 중요하다. 특히 공유 숙박업과 같이 지배적 사업자가 존재하는 경우에는 해당 사업자의 전략과 정책에 따라 산업의 존폐가 갈리기 때문이다. 이러한 상황에 근거하여, 본 연구의 결과는 공유경제 발전과 시장의 건전한 성장을 위하여 정부 및 플랫폼 사업자가 자신의 적합한 역할을 제고하는데 기여할 수 있을 것이라 판단한다. 본 연구의 한계점과 향후연구에 대한 제언은 다음과 같다. 본 연구는 정책순응의 요인에 대한 상대적 크기를 비교하지 않았다. 그렇기에 향후 연구에서는 자원 공급자가 정책 순응과 불응을 결정하는데 있어서, 고려하는 요인의 상대적 크기를 좀 더 체계적으로 분석할 필요성이 있다. 아울러, 플랫폼 사업자의 적정한 개입방법 및 방식에 대한 논의가 필요하다. 그럼에도 불구하고 본 연구는 공유경제의 자원 공급자에 대한 학술적인 조망이 부족한 현 시점에서, 질적 연구방법과 양적 연구방법을 혼합하여 사용함으로써 다양한 시각에서 풍부한 연구결과를 도출하고자 노력하였다는데 그 의의가 있다. The evolution of information technology, networks, and the advent of platform companies have enabled hitherto fragmented idle resources to be routinely traded easily and efficiently. The phenomenon calls ‘sharing economy’. Sharing economy allows people to trade small resources, such as a room or the back seat of a car, and allows them to economically operate accommodation or transportation businesses through online platforms. In this study, people who are trading their idle resources are defined as ‘resource providers’. Technological facilitation of the sharing economy has provided an opportunity for the economically inactive population to be engaged in economic activities with low start-up cost. Therefore sharing economy is regarded as innovation in management field. However, at the same time, a number of negative aspects have also arisen. Most prominently, resource providers may operate service businesses without sufficient knowledge of markets and policies, which can cause significant problems. The Korean government recommends that resource providers obtain a license after fulfilling certain requirements. However, it is estimated that less than 30% of resource providers do so; most of such providers are operating unregistered businesses without fulfilling government requirements. As a result, it has not been possible to accurately identify the number of resource providers and the scale of trading in the sharing economy. Such behaviors are defined as ‘policy non-compliance’ of the resource providers, which are ‘policy target group’ for the government. Therefore it is important to understand behaviour of resource providers toward related policy. However most of the recent studies, conducted on the sharing economy, are focused on consumers rather than resource providers. This study analyzes the characteristics of resource providers and their awareness of related policy. Then, investigates the determinants that guide them to policy compliance. The sharing accommodation business is selected as a case study for these purposes. The research questions are as follows. First, what are the characteristics of resource providers who are participating in the sharing economy in Korea, and how do they recognize government policies related to the sharing economy? Second, what are the factors affecting policy compliance and non-compliance of resource providers, and how does evaluation of each factor by providers affect policy compliance intentions? This study intended to address these two research questions in-depth by utilizing qualitative and quantitative methodologies. The first research question was addressed through a qualitative methodology: in-depth interviews. Influential factors were classified through a review of previous studies. Policy compliance studies of informal economic activities and small business operators that elucidated similar problems to those of the sharing economy were discussed. The rational choice theory and deterrence theory were adopted as the theoretical framework to position and explore development processes in the sharing economy. Based on this, in-depth interviews were conducted with 21 hosts(resource providers of the sharing economy) participating in the sharing accommodation business through Airbnb. The second research question was addressed through a quantitative methodology: a questionnaire survey. Based on the review of previous studies and results from the in-depth interviews, research model variables were postulated. The survey was conducted with 251 hosts participating in the sharing accommodation business through Airbnb. The determinants of policy compliance of resource providers were to be explained by adding the mediating role of the sharing economy platform and the characteristics of resource providers into the theoretical framework of the rational choice and deterrence theories. By adopting the rational choice theory, it was assumed that the nature and extent of policy compliance by resource providers depended on their subjective or objective cost-benefit calculations, and antecedent factors were investigated. By applying the deterrence theory, it was assumed that the existence of platform companies, a key feature of the sharing economy, would be able to solve information asymmetries that have been suggested as a principal determinant of non-compliance. The results suggested that interventions by the platform company could resolve information asymmetry between the government and the target group and reduce trading costs. The results of this study are significant in that the role of platform companies, as intermediaries, whose impact has been discussed but not verified in previous policy compliance studies, was postulated and validated empirically. In addition, to analyze compliance determinants according to the characteristics of resource providers, it was assumed that awareness of the costs and benefits of compliance and non-compliance would differ between ‘non-professional sharers with a pure purpose’ and ‘professional businessmen’. The results revealed that the influential relationship was larger for non-professional sharers with a pure purpose in the relationship between the awareness of the cost of policy compliance and the intention to comply. This implies that the cost of compliance that is recognized as a significant burden by non-professional sharers should be lowered to facilitate sound growth of the sharing economy. This study has academic significance in that it has employed the rational choice theory and the deterrence theory to explain policy compliance, with consideration to information asymmetry, the role of intermediaries, and differences in awareness depending on characteristics of the policy target group. The practical implications of this study are as follows. Although it is an era when anyone can operate an accommodation business by virtue of progress in information technology, it is argued that current policies were considered in the context of private accommodation and guesthouses that existed before the wide availability of high functionality information technology and, thus, do not reflect contemporary empirical realities. The results of this study showed that resource providers recognized the costs of compliance to be larger than the costs of non-compliance, and this was more prominent in resource providers with a pure purpose. Therefore, a structure that can lower the costs of compliance by distinguishing them, relieving them of a large burden, and providing sufficient information should be constructed. In this study, platform companies were suggested as one of the main determinants of compliance by resource providers. It is expected that appropriate intervention by platform companies can resolve information asymmetries in the process of policy implementation by the government and lower trading costs needed for the supervision of hosts, the target group. Limitations of this study and a proposal for further research are as follows. This study did not compare the relative sizes between factors of policy compliance. This could be analyzed systematically in future studies. In addition, how and when platform companies intervene in these contexts need to be discussed. Nevertheless, this study is significant in that it makes an effort to derive abundant research results from diverse perspectives using a mix of qualitative and quantitative methodologies.

Impact of fiscal and monetary policy on nominal GDP : case of Pakistan

INAM, Zeeshan KDI School of Public Policy and Management 2015 국내석사

The sluggish growth and rising unemployment is an alarming situation for policy makers to come up with some crucial policy measures to get rid of the problem. The present study was conducted to investigate the relative effect of both fiscal and monetary policy on nominal GDP. The famous St. Louis equation was used with Newey and West test to examine the policy response for the period of 1972-2013. The empirical evidences suggested that the relative effect of fiscal policy as compared to monetary policy is higher. Further, the study also used an interaction term with dummy variable to estimate the relative impact of both policies in recession. Our findings confirmed that fiscal policy has larger relative effect over monetary policy whether there is recession or not. We assumed that the dictatorship regime is the key determinant for higher relative effect of fiscal policy over monetary policy on nominal GDP. Therefore, on the basis of our findings, we may not only recommend to use fiscal instrument as a policy tool to surmount the recession and generate job opportunities for people adding into labor force annually but also the country needs to conduct independent monetary policy.

A Study on the Higher Education Reform Policy in China : Based on the Kingdon’s Multiple-Stream Framework

Meng Qiong 서울시립대학교 일반대학원 2009 국내석사

This article has applied Kingdon’s Multiple-Stream Framework (MSF) theory to analyze the stipulation of Chinese higher education policy reform. First of all, I divided the process of Chinese higher education reform policymaking into three streams: problem stream, policy stream and political stream in accordance with Kingdon’s MSF theory. Then, based on the factors stated in Kingdon’s MSF theory and the cases and data of Chinese higher education reform, I found that some of the factors affecting policy stipulation do not exist in China’s political system. For example, in political stream, there are neither interest groups, nor regime change in Chinese political system. As known to all, Kingdon’s theory is based on American regime and many interviews form the policy makers in the United States. The United States has a republic system, which is a pluralistic democracy. The pluralistic system enables different political parties to interact in the policy making process, so that different political parties compete to take more effect on government mechanism and try to maximize their benefits in the decision making process. Therefore, the establishment of a new government will consequentially incur new policies. The United States political system generally represents furious conflicts among different parties, while in China there are no internal conflicts among different interest groups and parties because of a One-party regime based on People's Congress system. In China, the administration change is actually the change of party leaders and always represents the interests of the same group, the change is generally facile. Hence, the administration change cannot provide sufficient force for policy reform. According to Kingdon’ theory, the policy window opens because of change in the political stream. Change of administration is probably the most obvious window in the political stream. However, in China, the administration change does not work for opening the policy reform window. Therefore, even after China entered the WTO, its higher education policy reform has not been so effective.