Theodore Dreiser의 소설에 나타난 자연주의 연구 : Sister Carrie와 Jennie Gerhardt를 중심으로

김종수 경성대학교 대학원 1990 국내석사

Theodore Dreiser digs out contradictions and conflicts of American society in which materialism and capitalism come to the climax extremely due to rapidly developed industrialism after Civil War in 1871. He has much concern about relationship between man and society. Man's ruthless desire for knowledge brings about the breakdown of morality and religion in the nineteenth century. Charles Dawin's The Origin of species and Herbert Spencer's First Principles present theoretical basis of this trend. Because of their influence he feels the loss of man's free will and see that man's fate is determined by a certain inconceivable factor which cannot be controlled scientifically. In Sister Carrie and Jennie Gerhardt he treated such an irresistable and importent human story. He shows that Carrie, as an endless desire-incarnation, is not satisfied with the reality and that her behaviour to satisfy the future-oriented needs is amoral. Hurstwood is the only important victim because he is not given fortune and chances. In Jennie Gerhardt, Jennie is also a victim of circumstances but Dreiser describes pure humanity that she presents through real love and gratitude. The common feature that Dreiser shows between these two works is compassion. Dreiser takes pity on man as a weak creature that cannot free itself from the cruel circumstances. Dreiser therefore does not blame them for the loss of morality. He realizes that man is ruled by an inconceivable power and is subjected to the "Nature Law" passively. Dreiser has sympathy with such people as cannot get over the rule of environment, but he realizes that those who are in a passive situation are helpless and incapable of helping them. In conclusion, Dreiser fatally treats etermal problem of man that man cannot free himself from the inconceivable power of circumstances.

Theodore Dreiser의 Sister Carrie에 나타난 자연주의 연구

채은희 단국대학교 교육대학원 2003 국내석사

This thesis aims at studying Sister Carrie which is representative of Theodore Dreiser's novels to find out the life of human beings Theodore Dreiser observed and described. Stephen Crane and Frank Norris who pioneered naturalism in America made considerable contributions to American literature. They reflected a deterministic naturalism that human beings are helpless animals and behave in accordance with instinct. They made efforts to describe human life in terms of naturalistic viewpoint and to express a naturalistic view of life artistically. But their naturalism was so limited that they could not continue to be consistent with their naturalistic theory and fulfill it against the thick wall of the traditional American literature. It can be said that Theodore Dreiser succeeded to them developed and established naturalism in American literature. In the Dreiserian world, all human creatures are trapped in the same nets of chance and circumstance which they neither control nor understand. They are helplessly swept this way and that by the winds of untoward, malicious, and reckless powers. They are neither masters of their destinies, nor can they escape from the forces and so it is useless and meaningless to consider, worry, and complain of that. In Dreiser's terms, all of them are more or less pawns. They're moved about by circumstance over which they have no control, as if they were chessmen played by chess players. They are blown hither and thither for what purpose they cannot even suspect, as if they were grains of dust or sand blown by a gust of wind. In Sister Carrie, Carrie's life was instinctive rather than willful, due to external forces in the course of obtaining material success and security. Carrie aimlessly pursues the illusion of wealth and pleasure, but she eventually experiences an unsatisfactory state of heart. Dreiser also depicts Hurstwood as a victim of chance and circumstances. Hurstwood ended in ruin in this height of his life and a tragic death because he could not resist the external forces. Dreiser found that the tragic factors of man's life are not in the violences and vices, but in the desires, circumstance and chances, which he reveals through this work. Through Carrie, Dreiser tried to portray life in his period from a naturalistic viewpoint, and as a heroine of a novel of naturalism, Carrie, equipped with most of these conditions, led an amoral life and kept living in luxury, as her instinct led her. Finally, Carrie succeeded in fulfilling her desire, but she could not e satisfied with it all and felt only disillusionment. After leaving Chicago which was the original living environment, Hurstwood who eloped with Carrie to New York was greatly influenced by the new one and at last he became fallen under the control of it. Ames had an effect on Carrie as a spokesman of Dreiser, but Carrie still remained unsatisfied. It can be said that in Sister Carrie Dreiser dealt with human problems on the universal dimension by presenting a human being as a weak existence and interpreting him by means of determinism. Thus, by Dreiser, true life in the American society was expressed in American literature for the first time. In conclusion, in his novels, Dreiser shows us living in the modern-day society and the real meaning of mental poverty. It is pitiable thing that life becomes more harsh and impersonal in an affluent society. This is caused by man's infinite desires which never fulfill his quest for satisfaction. Pursuing an aimless illusion of wealth and pleasure eventually leads to an unsatisfactory state of heart and existence. Dreiser shows us that if a man accomplishes his desires and pleasures based on morality and ethics, he can contribute to his society and will be a genuinely happy person.

Theodore Dreiser 硏究 : An American Tragedy를 중심으로

김건수 檀國大學校 大學院 1986 국내석사

본 논문의 목적은 미국 자연주의의 대표적 작가 Theodore Dreiser의 An American Tragedy를 중심으로 해서 당시의 시대상, 작품의 구성과 실재사건과의 비교하는 것을 주로 하였다. 그리고 난 후 작가가 본 내적인 삶을 잃고 "American Dream"에 빠져 자아를 창조하지 못하고 환경과 우연에 지배당하는 주인공 Clyde Griffiths의 인간상을 분석하고 전기의자에서 짧은 생을 끝마치는 순간까지도 왜 죽어야 하는지를 알지 못하는 주인공의 비극의 근원을 파악해 보았다. 특히 Clyde의 성격과 환경등은 그를 비극으로 인도할 수 밖에 없어 사회도 마땅히 Clyde의 잘못을 용서해야 된다는 작가의 humanism 등을 살펴보고 Dreiser의 작품 세계를 좀 더 이해해 보려는 데 목적을 두었다. Dreiser의 작품은 어느 면에서 작가 자신의 하나의 자서전이라고 말할 수 있다. 그는 자신이 미국인의 꿈에서 실패한 가정에서 태어나 자기의 현실을 꾸준히 만들어 나간 사람이었다. 그렇기 때문에 그는 자기의 인생체험을 바탕으로 하여 한 방황하는 젊은이의 생애를 자연주의 이론에 도입시켜 이 소설에서 상세히 기록하고 있다. 장편임에도 불구하고 An American Tragedy의 구조는 비교적 단순하다. 이 소설은 3개 부문의 구조를 가지고 있다. 1부에서는 주인공 Clyde의 어린 시절과 Kansas시에서 보낸 사춘기를 서술하고 있다. 2부는 Clyde가 Kansas시를 떠나 출세하기 위해서 결국 살인까지 하는 장면을 보여주고 있으며 소설의 3분의 1이상을 차지하고 있는 3부는 살인죄에 대한 재판과 처형을 다루고 있다. 각 부는 사회현실에 대한 정서적인 발전과 의식면에서 상이한 단계를 나타내고 있다. 그리고 각 단계는 희망과 가능성을 가지고 시작하지만 비극과 절망으로 끝맺는다. 소설의 구성이 Clyde를 사형으로 처벌한 것은 작가의 원대한 목적하에 인간사회에 개재된 사회악에 대한 하나의 고발로 제시한 것으로 이것은 인간생활의 한 단면도인 것이다. Dreiser는 문체적인 결점때문에 비난의 대상이 되어 왔고 작품 자체도 비평가들에 의해서 많은 공격을 받아 왔다. 그러나 그의 공적은 미국의 전통과 맞서서 용기와 진지성 그리고 철저한 철학관으로서 자신의 생애를 어느 작가보다 자연주의 수법으로 당시 미국사회의 비극적 인간상을 이해와 동정을 가지고 시대적인 사조속에서 표현하려고 노력하였다는 데에 있다. 이 노력이 지닌 예출적 가치는 An American Tragedy가 증명하였으며 따라서 그의 예술은 높이 평가되어 마땅하다. For more than a decade after publication of An American Tragedy in 1925, Dreiser often explained in letters, articles and interviews that his purpose in writing the novel had not been to exploit the fictional possibilities of a particular sensational crime but rather to express on archetypal American dilemma. In this thesis, I have tried to look into the tragic nature depicted in An American Tragedy and the scope of this thesis is based on the plot structure, periodical background, the wonder of hero, Clyde Griffiths, and lastly his crime and punishment. This novel is devided into three parts. The part one is about hero's childhood to his adolesence and specific descriptions of his backgrounds. In part two, Clyde Griffiths struggles for the better life he left Kansas city and even committs a murder to reach the goal. Then in part three, his judgement in the court and his execution are dealt with. Each part expresses the different stage of the hero's social involvement. In each part we see the hero has his own hope and troubles to reach the goal. Clyde Griffiths has tried to get wealth, sex, and higher social position, but having no social advantages he reveals weak, sensible and selfish character. He also demonstrates Dreiser's own thought that every motivation of life is under accidental chances. In Dreiser's world, there is a gulf between what we see and it's meaning behind, between appearance and reality, between the realm of chance and accident, and the realm of essence and inevitavility. Accidental events often seem to dominate hero and heroine. They are at the mercy of the unknown forces instead of their own faults and deficiencies. The elements which shaped Clyde-poverty, ignorance, and inexperience-once again determine his fate. Thus Clyde Griffiths has been at the mercy of surrounding circumstances finally leading to the electric chair. The main emphasis of this thesis is to prove that his tragedy comes from the unbalance between his character and circumstances, and that tragedy is fatal. As indicated by the title of the novel, Dreiser put Clyde to death in the end and he represented clyde's tragic life which could happen to many other Americans. Death sentence given to him in the novel represents author's version of the solution to the evils in human society. As a writer, Dreiser has been criticized for having bad style and his works has been subjected to marry criticisms. However, opposing to American tradition, he tried to express the tragic human life in America of his time with more courage and deeper philosophy than any other naturalistic writers throughout his life. Therefore, An American Tragedy can be called a masterpiece which is created through the tragic view of Dreiser toward life closely organized with complete structure, background, characters and realistic description.

Theodore Dreiser의 자연주의적 주인공들에 관한 연구

곽승엽 明知大學校 大學院 1994 국내박사

Theodore Dreiser, who developed naturalism in American literature, was a writer who was concerned about the perishing morals and ethics, the state that had saturated material civilization in which the relationship between man and man is estimated not on understanding and trust, but on social position and from the viewpoint of the materialistic side of modern-day life. Through the characters in his novels, Dreiser realistically portrays the life of alienated and collapsed men in the dreary and rough society, and from the standpoint of this view, Dreiser showed his concern about the problems of the human society and how they could be settled. Man's reasoning and free will cannot be displayed in a mechanical and material civilization. That is to say, human beings are helpless when their existence is determined by external circumstances and in terms of responding to physical-chemical impulses. Accordingly, the life of a man who acts mechanically according to impulse or instinct, ends in tragedy because of the many miserable factors, which Dreiser applied to his major works. The trait of Dreiser in his own naturalistic sphere, was that his characters were not responsible for their actions because they lived passively without free will. At the time Dreiser was active in creating his works, life was harsh in the American society for the helpless ordinary people because the gap between the wealthy and poor was deepening at a time when America was in a state of financial difficulty, and people were rushing to the big cities from the rural communities. As a result of this growing number of poor people in the cities, the industrial policy switched from agriculture to industry. The violent capitalism that characterized the late 19th and early 20th centuries was an obvious example of the survival of the fittest. In this period of time, the common goals of American youths were success, pleasure and money. But their desire to acquire them did not fulfill their expectations. These are the principle ideas in most of Dreiser's works, and as such, the substance of this study relates to those factors. Dreiser expressed the tragic lives of people who were controlled by unseen forces which were detrimental to the will of human beings on the viewpoint of "chemism." Dreiser made an effort to understand the essence of human life to be able to show the reader the real inner heart of human beings and the limitations of desire, through depicting the contrast between rich and poor and between splendor and pitiableness. He is a writer who tried to take the form of human experiences to a more lofty dimension. This thesis focuses on the motivation and distinction of the generation of naturalism in literature, the relationship French naturalism and American naturalism, and Dreiser's characteristic naturalism through his four major novels; Sister Carrie, Jennie Gerhardt, The Financier, and An American Tragedy. In Sister Carrie, Carrie's life was instinctive rather than willful, due to external forces in the course of obtaining material success and security. Carrie aimlessly pursues the illusion of wealth and pleasure, but she eventually experiences an unsatisfactory state of heart. Dreiser also depicts Hurstwood as a victim of chance and circumstances. Hurstwood ended in ruin in this height of his life and a tragic death because he could not resist the external forces. Dreiser found that the tragic factors of man's life are not in the violences and vices, but in the desires, circumstances and chances, which he reveals through this work. In Jennie Gerhardt, through Jennie's various experiences, such as her relationship with her lovers, Brander and Lester, the social restraints and despisings stemming from her love affairs with the two men, her poor family circumstances, the death of her daughter, Vesta, and so on, she not only matures and becomes much more sensitive, but also develops a broad capacious mind and better understanding of the pains of others. Though Jennie is in the state of poor family circumstances, Brander and Lester actively show their love and compassion to her, and because the relationship between Jennie and her lovers was based on the thought of providing help for her poor family, and not merely on physical desire and the illusion of wealth, she always had feelings of gratitude for those who had helped her, and never refused to make sacrifices willingly to those who help others. In The Financier, Dreiser made Cowperwood a victim of his own temperament, reduced the main motives to chemical reactions, and made his central character the instrument or tool of a force beyond his control by connecting the business and love plots. Dreiser showed a new approach to the American dream. He depicted Cowperwood as a man of ability and energy instead of being relatively weak like Carrie, Hurstwood, Jennie, and Lester. Dreiser depicts Cowperwood as a sort of superman. Cowperwood's morals may not be held up as exemplary in American society, but his intelligence and energy make him the center of affection and concern. Through this novel, Dreiser shows us that the strong and sly may win for a time, but eventually, human desires and emphasis on pleasure become destructive if one is lacking a sense of morality and ethics. An American Tragedy relates the hopes and failures of the American dream through the life history of Clyde Griffiths. Dreiser shows Clyde as the weakest hero, and Clyde has the least of the inexplicable inner drive which makes a commanding personality. Clyde's tragedy, caused by the course he took in accomplishing his personal desires, is a common case to ordinary American people. Clyde's "American dream" is confined to money, women, and social position. Therefore, through this novel, Dreiser defines "Tragedy" as the absence of conscience. In conclusion, in his novels, Dreiser shows us living in the modern-day society the real meaning of mental poverty. It is a pitiable thing that life becomes more harsh and impersonal in an affluent society. This is caused by man's infinite desires which never fulfill his quest for satisfaction. Pursuing an aimless illusion of wealth and pleasure eventually leads to an unsatisfactory state of heart and existence. Dreiser shows us that if a man accomplishes his desires and pleasures based on morality and ethics, he can contribute to his society and will be a genuinely happy person. 미국의 자연주의 작가 Theodore Dreiser(1871-1945)는 포화상태의 물질문명속에서 잃어가는 정신과 도덕적인 문제에 관심을 기울였던 작가이다. 현대사회에서 인간과 인간과의 관계는 신뢰와 이해로서 이루어지는 것이 아닌 물질적인 측면과 사회적 지위의 높고 낮음을 바탕으로 한 가치관에 의해서 이루어지고 평가된다. Dreiser는 이러한 삭막하고 각박해져 가는 사회속에서 소외되고 파멸되어가는 인간을 재조명 해보므로서 무엇이 문제이고 어떠한 해결책이 있는가에 관심을 가진 작가였다. 이러한 물질문명과 획일화된 기계문명속에서 이성과 자유의지는 발휘될 수 없는 것이다. 즉, 물리, 화학적 충동에 의해 반응하고 또한 외부의 환경과 조건에 의해 이끌려가는 개성이 말살된 기계적이며 반복적인 일상생활에는 비참한 요인들이 많기 때문에 자연 비극적으로 끝을 맺을 수 밖에 없다라는 것이 Dreiser의 대부분의 소설들에 적용된 자연주의적 개념이다. 그래서 Drieser의 인물들은 자유의지가 없이 수동적으로 살아가기 때문에 그 행위에 책임이 없다는 것이 Dreiser 자신의 독자적인 문학적 개념이다. Dreiser가 작품활동을 했던 시기의 미국은 경제적 어려움에도 불구하고 빈부의 격차는 심했으며, 산업정책이 농업에서 공업에 역점을 두게되어 농촌인구의 도시이입이 증가하였으며, 도시빈민의 발생과 증가, 낮은 임금과 실업자의 증가, 그리고 무법적이고 야만적인 기업가들의 착취와 음모로 보통의 무기력한 일반시민은 더욱 비참한 생활을 면하기 어려운 상황이었다. 이러한 상황속에서 Dreiser는 부와 빈곤, 화려함과 비참함의 대조를 통해서 인간의 진실된 내면과 욕망의 한계를 보여줌으로서 인간의 삶 그 자체를 이해하려고 노력하였을 뿐만 아니라 보다 더 높은 차원의 인간경험의 원형을 형성하려고 노력하였던 작가이다. 본 논문에서는 자연주의 문학이 발생하게 된 동기와 특징 그리고 프랑스 자연주의와 미국의 자연주의와의 관계와 Dreiser 자신의 독특한 자연주의를 이해하는 데 역점을 두었다. 그리고 작품 분석에 들어가서 Sister Carrie에서 Carrie는 끝없이 욕망을 추구하나 결국은 만족을 하지 못하고 심적 갈등을 느끼게 되는 그녀의 모습과 Jennie Gerhardt에서 Jennie의 자기희생적 숭고한 삶과 결말에 이르러 내면의 평온한 심적 상태를 얻는 그녀의 삶과 The Financier에서 Frank Algeron Cowperwood의 법과 도덕을 초월한 초인간적인 삶의 활약상과 An American Tragedy에서 나약한 의지를 가진 한 젊은이가 그가 감당못 할 사회 환경속에서 타락하여 결국 파멸로 끝나는 과정을 살펴보기로 하겠다. 결론적으로 Dreiser의 이 네 작품을 통해서 자연주의의 특징인 외부의 힘에 의해서 무력한 모습으로 인간성을 상실한 채 살아가고 있는 비극적 주인공들을 살펴보고 이들의 삶에 작용하는 비극적 요인인 환경, 우연과 욕망 그러고 성적욕망이 어떠한 역할을 하는지를 살펴보고자 한다. 그러므로서 현대사회에서 인간의 진정한 행복이란 무엇을 의미하며 어디에서 찾을 수 있는지를 연구하고자 한다.

Theodore Dreiser의 자연주의 연구 : Sister Carrie와 Jennie Gerhardt를 중심으로

김경수 檀國大學校 大學院 1987 국내석사

知識에 대한 人間의 探究는 계속 진행되어 19세기에 들어와서도 天文學, 地理學, 生物學, 心理學등 여러가지 분야에서 커다란 進展을 가져왔다. 그러나 科學의 進步는 物質的으로 만족했지만 人間의 마음속에 懷疑를 일으키고 道德과 信仰의 崩壞를 초래했다. 그에 따라 人間은 자신의 存在를 다시 생각해 보지 않을 수 없었다. Darwin의 The Origin of Species를 비롯한 Spencer의 First Principles 등은 이러한 思潮의 理論的인 立場을 대변해 주고있다. Dreiser의 文學的 根據도 이런 思想의 영향을 받아서 人間 自由意志의 不在를 느끼고 人間의 運命은 生物學的으로나, 科學的으로 統制할 수 없는 어떤 힘에 의해 결정된다는 생각을 굳히고 있다. 그는 作品 Sister Carrie와 Jennie Gerhardt를 통해서 環境의 영향과 저항할 수 없는 힘에 무력하게 좌우되는 人物들을 이야기하고 있다. Sister Carrie에서 Carrie는 끊임없이 펼쳐지는 欲望의 化身으로 措寫되고 있으며, Sister Carrie에서의 Hurstwood와 Jennie Gerhardt에서 Jennie는 運이나 機會가 닿지 않는 무력한 犧牲物이며 世波의 放浪者로 표현되고 있다. 이와같이 Dreiser의 作中人物들은 그 당시에는 文學에서 거의 등장하지 않았으면 하는 人物들이다. 그의 主人公들은 英雄的인 삶을 산 것이 아니라 보잘것 없는 小市民들로서 自然에 對抗하여 가련한 鬪爭을 하면서 본의아닌 生活을 영위하지만 그속에는 人間存在의 意味와 아름다움이 있다고 그는 말하고 있다. 이처럼 Dreiser는 人間에 대한 同情心을 갖고 평범한 사람들의 평범한 이야기를 쓰면서 環境에 대하여 受動的 立場을 취하며 무력할 수밖에 없는 사람들을 사랑하고 있는 것이다. 結論的으로 Dreiser는 自然主義 作家로서의 態度를 堅持하면서 영원한 人間의 問題를 다루고 있다. Endless and tireless human knowledge has succeeded in developing the various aspects of science and the progress of science from astronomy to biology and on to psychology has stimulated the heart of man to have skepticism and realism rather than the spirit of admiration. Accordingly, such skepticism has bred the decay of faith which is the natural consequence and the most obvious sign of naturalism. Naturally man has been forced to think and get the new notions about him and his position in the universe. Man himself is no longer what he was. In Dreiser's naturalistic terms, man is nothing but one among many natural objects, not differing in his status or destiny from a stone or shrub or beast. He is no more than a waif amid the greater forces in the universe. Both Hurstwood in Sister Carrie and Jennie in Jennie Gerhardt are the helpless victims of the blind forces of chance and circumstance. George Hurst we meet as the impeccably groomed manager of a prosperous saloon but leave as a ragged, penniless suicide. Why and how should 'he be that way? None and nothing can explain the tragic conclusion. Jennie, too, follows along Hurstwood's road, although not to the same bitter conclusion. Meeting misery and insult with a quiet selfishness, she ends her days without a real family of her own. Why does she endure and suffer from the brutal and clumsy dispensation of fate that imposed itself upon the weak? Both Hurst and Jennie are gulfed in the grip of the blind forces. They are blown this way and that by the blind winds of chances and circumstance, which they neither control nor understand completely. Carrie is a victim of her fate, even though she has attained all the things she craved. In her hands, she has grabbed at all the things such as applause, friends, money, and beauty that had seemed life's objects in the elementary stage of her desire. Ironically enough, however, she never feels satisfied. Instead of satisfaction, she feels a sort of vanity and loneliness. Carrie by nature is prompted to look upward, upward, never back. Somehow, somewhere, there must be more to life than Carrie has so far tasted? After all, she is a victim of her fate. She is doomed to pass her life in an endless yearning that never reached. Carrie, Hurstwood, and Jennie are all the victims of the hands of fate, though their failures differ in kind. There are no winners or no losers in the Dreiserian world. In the Dreiserian world, all human creatures are trapped in the same nets of chance and circumstance which they neither control nor understand. They are helplessly swept this way and that by the winds of untoward, malicious, and reckless powers. They are neither masters of their destinies, nor they can escape from the forces and so it is useless and meaningless to consider, worry, and complain of that. In Dreiser's terms, all of them are more or less pawns. They're moved about by circumstance over which they have no control, as if they were chessmen played by chess players. They are blown hither thither for what purpose they cannot even suspect, as if they were grains of dust or sand blown by a gust of wind. Dreiser's distinctive feature is that he values facts more and describes them in detail. The clear and correct description of facts may be important for an incident, and may lead readers effectively to the solution of the problems presented, but an overdetailed and minute description may often impair the literary expression. This type of description is considered both a strong point as well as a weak point of Dreiser's novels. Therefore, this thesis aims at pointing out the merits and demerits of the detailed descriptions seen in Dreiser's novel. By deterministic naturalism, Dreiser consistently exerted himself to present human life engaging in passive and helpless struggle, but this struggle is not meaningless at all. Dreiser never ignored each hero's effort to live a meaningful life within the scope of his ability even though they were placed in unfavorable conditions. Dreiser also expressed his limitless pity and compassion toward those struggling human beings who are fighting against forces which exercise great power particularly over the weak and unprotected. Like this Dreiser presented the problem of eternal human nature at the standpoint of a Naturalistic writer.

Theodore Dreiser의 자연주의와 초월적 신비주의 연구

김초훈 단국대학교 대학원 2002 국내박사

Theodore Dreiser의 소설연구 : 그의 자연주의 변천과정을 중심으로

차중희 중앙대학교 1996 국내박사

Theodore Dreiser의 소설 연구 : 사회 희생자로서의 개인

나채근 嶺南大學校 1998 국내박사

Theodore Dreiser의 Sister Carrie 연구 : 進化論을 中心으로

김초훈 단국대학교 교육대학원 1998 국내석사

Theodore Dreiser의 Sister Carrie와 An American Tragedy 연구

문수성 이화여자대학교 대학원 1990 국내석사