Power, politics, and change in higher education: The case of the National Autonomous University of Mexico

Ordorika, Imanol Stanford University 1999 해외박사(DDOD)

The study of politics, power, and conflict in higher education is the object of this work. It analyzes the connection between political processes and change in higher education in a historical perspective by drawing from the case of the <italic>Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México </italic>. This work attempts to contribute to the study of the relation between political processes and change in higher education. It constitutes an effort to explain why increasing demands have not produced rapid responses from the university. It tries to understand why this lack of response has generated internal and external tensions and conflictive dynamics. In addressing these issues I draw from a revealing case study and an alternative theoretical construct in order to generalize some patterns that will enable our understanding of other cases and institutions. This dissertation examines the process of change at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) in the presence of new internal and societal exigencies, from a historical perspective. It looks at power relations, political processes, and conflicts at the largest and most important single institution of higher education in the country. The study of this process at UNAM is enlightening because of the massive nature of this university, its centrality in Mexican higher education, and the opportunity to gather data on the nature of these conflicts and tensions. In building this explanation, three issues of major relevance are addressed in this dissertation. The first issue is the construction of a conceptual model that will focus on change, a consequence of politics and conflict in higher education. An outcome of this is the exposition of the political nature of the UNAM and higher education organizations in general. The second issue is an effort to reassess the limits of University autonomy and the relation between the UNAM and the Federal Government in Mexico. The third issue is study of the process of change at the UNAM.

Determinants of bilateral aid to higher education : focusing on the sociopolitical, economic & educational dimensions of recipients

김성겸 서울대학교 대학원 2020 국내석사

국제 개발협력의 관점에서 원조를 통한 개발도상국의 고등교육기관 발전에 대한 중요성은 증가하고 있다. 나아가, 세계 각국에서 시행되고 있는 고등교육 국제화 노력과 더불어 고등교육의 발전을 위한 원조량은 꾸준히 증가하는 추세이다. 이 같은 원조는 고등교육의 특성상 국제 장학금과 국제 학생을 위한 자금 지원의 형태를 중심으로 이루어지게 되며, 양자원조 프로그램의 경우 공여국과 수원국의 고등교육기관들이 직접적으로 사업에 참가하는 양상이 증가하고 있다 (Varghese, 2010). 다시 말해 고등교육 발전을 목표로 하는 원조는 수많은 학생이 혜택을 받게 되고, 다양한 대학기관들이 직접 참여를 하게 되는 반면, 아직까지 고등교육 원조의 결정 요인과 효과성에 대한 경험적 연구는 충분히 이루어지지 않고 있다. 따라서 본 연구는 지난 2000년부터 2017년까지 OECD DAC의 공여국들의 고등교육 원조 결정요인을 분석함으로써 고등교육 원조의 담론에 기여하고자 한다. 우선 DAC 전체와 개별적인 공여국의 고등교육 양자 원조 결정요인을 분석하기 위해 본 연구는 고등교육을 목적으로 하는 양자 원조 약정액을 종속변수로 선택하고, Donor Interest-Recipient Needs (공여국의 이익-수원국의 필요) 모델을 바탕으로 독립변수를 선정하여 수원국의 경제적, 인도적, 교육적 요구와 수원국에 대한 공여국의 정치, 경제적 요인들을 분석하였다. 또한, 국가 간 정보 흐름의 용이함을 나타내는 독립변수를 추가함으로써 정보의 흐름에 따른 약정액의 차이도 분석이 가능하도록 하였다. 위와 같은 분석에 따라 두 가지 주요 결과를 도출하였다. 첫째, DAC에 속한 다양한 공여국들의 중점 협력국과 지역들이 존재한다는 것을 감안하더라도 각각의 수원국에 약정되는 고등교육 양자 원조 금액은 고등교육의 특성과 관련된 여러 가지 요인들에 의해 결정된다는 것이다. DAC 전체의 분석 결과에 따르면 수원국의 요구, 공여국의 이익, 그리고 수원국의 사회적 정보 체계의 다양한 요인들이 고등교육 원조에 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 또한, 고등교육에 대한 원조는 수원국의 GDP와 반비례하며 인구수와 비례하는 등 전체적인 원조의 결정요인을 대체적으로 따르는 것으로 나타났지만, 특히 수원국의 노동력 및 3차 교육 취학률과 반비례하는 것으로 나타났다. 반면, 수원국의 정보 기반 시설의 수준이 높거나 수원국의 정부가 국제사회에서 활발하게 활동을 할수록 고등교육 발전을 위한 지원을 더욱 많이 받는 것으로 나타났다. 둘째, 공여국들의 개별적인 분석 결과 각각의 공여국마다 고등교육 발전을 위한 양자 원조 약정액의 결정요인이 다른 것으로 나타났다. 예로, 프랑스, 독일, 오스트리아의 경우 자국으로 국제학생의 유학을 장려하기 위해 장학금과 학생 지원금 형태의 원조에 투자를 많이 한다는 공통점을 가지고 있으나, 1) 프랑스는 높은 정보 기반 시설을 가지고 있으나 중등교육 취학률이 낮은 구(舊) 식민지권 국가들과 프랑스어권 국가들에 대한 원조에 집중하는 것으로 나타났고, 2) 독일은 비교적 역량이 있는 고등교육기관을 갖춘 수원국을 대상으로 고등교육 원조를 선호하며, 3) 오스트리아는 청년실업률이 높고 기초교육기관이 제대로 작동하지 않는 국가들에게 고등교육 원조를 집중하는 것으로 나타났다. 결론적으로, 위와 같은 경험적 분석을 통해 DAC 전체적으로는 고등교육을 위한 양자 원조가 인도적, 경제적, 교육적 필요성과 관심, 그리고 수원국 정보 체계의 활성화 정도에 따라 규범적으로 시행되고 있는 것처럼 보이지만, 실질적으로는 다양한 공여국들이 각기 다른 요인을 바탕으로 고등교육 양자 원조를 집행하는 것이 확인되었다. 따라서 본 연구의 중요성은 공적개발원조(ODA)와 개도국의 고등교육 발전과 관련된 공여국과 수원국의 여러 가지 관점들이 고등교육 양자원조에 영향을 미치는 것을 DI-RN 모델을 바탕으로 확인한 데 있다. 반면, 본 연구에서는 DI-RN을 바탕으로 한 분석틀로는 확인이 되지 않는 고등교육 양자 원조 결정요인들을 더욱 포괄적으로 분석하기가 어려웠고, DAC에 속한 공여국들의 특유한 사회정치적 맥락이 깊이 있게 고려되지 않은 점이 제한점이다. 추가로, 향후 수원국의 관점에서 공여국들이 시행한 고등교육 양자 원조의 효과성을 분석하는 후속 연구가 진행된다면 고등교육 ODA 및 원조효과성 담론의 발전에 이바지할 것이다. The importance of promoting higher education through global development efforts and foreign aid is growing. Bolstered by efforts of higher education institutions to internationalize, the volume of foreign aid for the purpose of developing the world’s higher education institutions is increasing. Such phenomenon especially gives importance to aid modalities of international scholarships and subsistence support to international students. Even when commitments are made to aid types that are not scholarships, the frequency of institution-level involvement by both donor and recipient institutions in bilateral aid programs for higher education is increasing (Varghese, 2010). However, not many studies have been conducted about the determinants and effectiveness of bilateral aid to higher education. Therefore, this study aims to contribute to the literature of higher education aid by analyzing the determinants of bilateral higher education aid of DAC donors based on empirical bilateral ODA data provided by OECD from 2000 to 2017. For the analysis of collective and individual determinants, this study has utilized explanatory variables that have been selected based on the donor-interest and recipient-needs (DI-RN model) to examine the impact of a recipient’s economic, humanitarian and educational needs, as well as a donor’s political and economic needs on the amount of higher education aid a country receives. In addition, explanatory variables that represent the ease of cross-border information flows have also been used in order to estimate the impact of a recipient’s conditions that facilitate international information flows on higher education aid. A key finding is that even with the regional development cooperation priorities of donors considered, the amount of higher education aid that a country may receive in general is determined by various factors. The empirical analysis result of DAC donors as a group indicated that several factors of recipient needs, donor interest, and the recipient’s social knowledge infrastructure were all considered in the allocation of higher education aid. While aid to higher education followed the basic principle of aid, wherein it is conceptualized by many that aid should be given to larger countries with low GDP, it was also revealed in the results that insufficiencies in a country’s labor force as well as gross tertiary enrolment rate were relevant to the amount of higher education aid. At the same time, it was estimated that countries with high levels of information infrastructure and more global ties were more likely to receive larger amounts of higher education development support. Second, in addition to an assessment of the composition of aid types committed for the purpose of higher education, it was revealed that different variables were significant to different donors as determinants for providing higher education aid. For instance, France, Germany and Austria would both allocate more higher education aid to encourage international student mobility through scholarships and student benefits to politically global yet poorer countries. However, ceteris paribus, it was estimated that France will most likely be preferential to francophone countries with good information infrastructure and higher needs in secondary education whereas Germany would more likely be open to accepting international students from countries with a reasonably capable higher education institution. Similar to France, it can be assumed that Austria will also provide more aid to countries with better information infrastructure. However, Austria showed a tendency to provide such aid to countries with higher youth unemployment and lower primary education capacity. Furthermore, it was estimated that the U.S will commit more aid to countries lacking in social infrastructure and a weaker labor market, while Japan’s will most likely support higher education development in countries with low upper-secondary education achievement. In summary, the empirical analysis conducted in this study revealed that different needs and interests were considered by donors in allocating higher education aid. The allocation of aid to the subsector on a collective level was examined to be affected by normative determinants that include humanitarian, economic, and educational needs as well as political interests and the recipient’s infrastructural readiness to support the development of institutional development of higher education. However, individual donors showed differences in the type of specific need or interest that impacts the allocation of aid to higher education. Regardless, normative needs such as low GDP and different educational needs were identified to be key considerations for donors in allocating aid to higher education. The significance of this study lies in the identification of such differences in the determinants existent within and across different needs and interests as well as infrastructural conditions extraneous to the DI-RN model. However, such findings further require us to conduct studies that are more contingent to individual donors in order to provide a comprehensive understanding of the political and strategic drive of DAC donors within the higher education subsector. Additionally, studies about higher education aid allocation based on the recipient’s perspective, such as the evaluation of specific outcomes of the different types of aid provided by different donors, is also expected to significantly contribute to the literature of higher education aid effectiveness.

The WTO and the university: Globalization, GATS, and American higher education

Bassett, Roberta Malee Boston College 2005 해외박사(DDOD)

In December 2000, the Office of the United States Trade Representative (USTR) publicly released its initial negotiating proposal to remove barriers to trade in higher education services to the World Trade Organization (WTO) and its General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). This study explored the specific details of the GATS and examined the perceptions and opinions of the American higher education community and the federal government representatives most invested in the outcomes of the on-going GATS negotiations regarding higher education. This study involved qualitative research---document analysis, historical research, and interviews with government officials and representatives of the higher education 'industry'---culminating in a study of how American higher education responded to the potential liberalization of trade in higher education services through the GATS. The theory of the commodification of higher education---that higher education is increasingly being treated as a commercial product---emerged from the data as an explanation for both the USTR's decision to include higher education in a major trade agreement, as well as the widespread negative reaction of the higher education industry to free trade in higher education services. The study revealed that American higher education was initially unprepared for the challenges of addressing trade concerns, leaving the USTR to take its cues about higher education from an organization without representative input from the broad higher education community. It also exposed and examined the many serious concerns the higher education industry had, ranging from challenges to quality assurance standards to the rising influence of the for-profit sector to the blurring lines between public and private higher education. A particularly noteworthy observation was that just a few well-positioned individuals have been affecting broad international policy formation in regards to this issue. This research highlighted international trade as an important and relatively unexamined area in which globalization has impacted higher education in the United States and informed the nascent debate about the implications of international trade for American higher education.

A study of selected women administrators and their perceptions of the challenges encountered in achieving high level positions in higher education administration

Ononiwu, Innocentia Marie Michigan State University 2001 해외박사(DDOD)

Records of gender equity in higher education administration have shown that women have been the second choice in the selection as higher education administrators. For the reason that many women think that they cannot be hired as much as their male counterparts are hired in higher education administrative positions, some of them took it for granted that they are the endangered species in the administration of higher education. The purpose of this study was to identify the enhancing and challenging factors influencing the achievement of women who reached top levels of administration in selected Michigan Universities; and to determine whether these factors are different from those perceived by other researchers who are concerned with the issue of inequity in higher education administrative positions. The study investigated the progress that women have made in attaining positions in higher education administration in the early 1980s. The researcher intended to utilize information obtained to provide guidance and perspective to women who aspire to top level administrative positions in higher education. This study used a qualitative interview method was used to gain an in-depth understanding of purposively selected participants from their perspective. A list of fourteen research questions were administered to purposively selected female administrators in three categories of administration, from three higher institutions of learning in Michigan. The qualitative data analytical method consisted of words and statements, which expressed qualities rather than quantities, was used to describe and summarize the data. This constant qualitative data analysis relied on the findings from the fourteen research questions to determine the most critical consistencies and inconsistencies with the literature review. The findings on the perceptions of the female administrators from research questions two through fourteen were consistent with the literature review. It is not possible to draw conclusions that the findings from research question one is neither consistent nor inconsistent because there is no review of literature on demographic information. It was observed from the findings that the female administrators interviewed were aware that females have made gains in appointments to higher education administrative positions. They still believe, however, that balance, proportionately, is needed with male counterparts. The study participants were in agreement that there are serious societal sex-stereotypical hindrances that need to be completely removed. Such action would permit females to more visibly recognized and on equal basis with their male counterparts.

Private Costs, Public Benefits: An Analysis of 25 Years of Coverage on Access to Higher Education in Influential U.S. Newspapers

Lish, Rebecca ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Arizona State Univ 2019 해외박사(DDOD)

Higher education enrollment and degree attainment rates have increased in the U.S. Yet higher education has remained inaccessible to many. Low- and middle-income students and students from particular racial and ethnic backgrounds enroll and attain degrees at lower rates than their peers. To gain insight into the topic of access to higher education, I used social constructionist, critical, and socio-cognitive perspectives to conduct a descriptive, content, and discourse analysis of 1,242 articles about access to higher education published from 1994-2019 in eight influential U.S. newspapers. I also explored the historical and social context in which this coverage was situated. I found that access to higher education was considered an important topic in the articles I analyzed. I also found that while definitions of access to higher education were varied and often intersected, content related to costs and funding of higher education dominated the coverage. In addition, a tension between public and private benefits of access to higher education emerged in the articles I analyzed, as did a tension between public and private costs of access to higher education. These costs and benefits were often misaglined in coverage. The most salient benefit of access to higher education in the majority of articles was a public benefit, which primarily benefits society. However, a private entity or higher education institution was deemed responsible for covering the costs of access to higher education in the majority of articles. This research could be used to promote more nuanced coverage on access to higher education as well as policies, practices, and additional research that addresses the multiplicity of ways in which disparities in access to higher education are created, sustained, and reproduced.

Higher education in the creation of individual social capital: A student organization ethnography

Miracle, Jeffrie W University of Pittsburgh 2013 해외박사(DDOD)

Higher education is often credited with being an effective means for an individual to invest in and acquire skills and knowledge---often referred to as human capital. Participating in higher education may also provide an individual with the opportunity to build valuable relationships with individuals that result in access to resources such as information, the mutual exchange of favors, emotional support and career networking---often referred to as social capital. While it is understood that higher education is an effective way for an individual to invest in and accumulate human capital, it is not as clearly understood how higher education can be an effective way for an individual to invest in and accumulate other forms of capital, such as social capital. The consequence of not having an equivalent emphasis on how higher education creates social capital among students potentially implies that higher education may not be explicitly making an effort to promote opportunities for social capital investment; students and researchers may not be aware that higher education can facilitate social capital investment; and students may not understand the application of social capital in their own lives. In response to the lack of emphasis on higher education as a form of social capital investment, this study looks at one segment of higher education, namely undergraduate student participation in student organizations, to explore the potential opportunities for social capital accumulation in higher education. Qualitative research methodology was used to collect, analyze and interpret comprehensive narrative and visual data to gain insights in the phenomenon of higher education in the creation of social capital. The population for the study was undergraduate students at the University of Pittsburgh who participate in student organizations. As the result of criterion-based sampling, the sample chosen for the study was the Blue and Gold Society, a student ambassador organization that supports and represents the University while providing members with opportunities to network with faculty, staff, other students, university donors, alumni and community members. Ethnography, more specifically participant observation, semi-structured interviews and cultural artifact review, were utilized to collect the data. Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software was utilized to efficiently manage, organize and analyze data. The results from the research study answer the questions: 1) What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization member's social network and how are those relationships developed? 2) What forms of social capital are embedded in the social networks of undergraduate student organization members? 3) What role does trust play in an undergraduate student organization member's access to social capital and how is trust developed among social network members? The findings state that members of the Blue and Gold Society student organization are able to collectively invest in and accumulate 18 forms of social capital amongst a social network of 30 distinct individuals/types of individuals; Society members develop relationships with these individuals through 21 distinct processes; trust plays a role in Society members' ability to invest in and access social capital embedded in their social networks; and, Society members utilize 16 distinct processes to develop trust within their relationships with social network members. Recommendations are provided for higher education student affairs professionals, researchers, institutional leadership and assessment designers.

Investigating Inequitable Access to Higher Education in Developing Countries : A Case of Centro Preuniversitario, UNMSM in Peru

신민경 서울대학교 대학원 2024 국내박사

In the international arena, discussions are actively underway to achieve equitable access to higher education through initiatives such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). While there is no binding obligation at the national level to enhance the equity of higher education access, the Cordoba Reform, which had a widespread impact in the Latin American region, serves as the basis for specific societal expectations placed on public universities of Peru. Peruvian public universities are aware of their role in this regard. With the expansion of demand and supply in higher education, Peruvian public universities have transitioned from elite to popularized institutions since the 1960s. However, in the 1990s, public universities established Centro Preuniversitario (Preuniversity Center, hereafter ‘CEPRE’), a type of private supplementary education (PSE) institution to prepare applicants for their university entrance exams within their campuses, ostensibly with the goal of admitting academically prepared students to the university while providing more opportunity for higher education to low-income individuals. However, within this context, the period during which university aspirants enroll and study at CEPRE is not recognized for any level of secondary or higher education. CEPREs exist in both public and private universities that rank above a certain level. Modeled after ‘academies’ that had been preparing students for competitive university admissions exams since the 1960s, CEPREs also gained legal standing in 1983. As higher education expanded, students entering university exhibited a broader socio-economic spectrum, and those who had received lower-quality public education struggled to meet the academic standards required by universities. This led to the emergence of academies as businesses, mirroring the financial challenges faced by public universities, which, in turn, implemented a similar model within the university. The fact that the state permits each public university to operate a CEPRE and generate its own profits is not unrelated to the global trend of neoliberalism or education privatization. In other words, the public university CEPRE is a system with elements of neoliberalism within a state-supported higher education institution. Meanwhile, from the perspective of students and parents, public university CEPREs function in the same way as PSE taken to prepare for university entrance exams. Therefore, this study considers the CEPRE as an extreme form of PSE that exists at the point of transition from secondary education to higher education. While PSE is generally known to exacerbate educational inequity, CEPRE is notorious for charging higher tuition fees than any other academy. Against this backdrop, this dissertation examines how the inequity of higher education access opportunities is manifested through the case study of a CEPRE at the National University of San Marcos (UNMSM) in Peru. This research specifically addresses the lack of studies examining the impact of PSE in inequities during the transition from secondary to higher education in the context of developing countries. The purpose of this study is to understand the patterns of inequitable higher education access in developing countries through PSE during the university admissions process. The research questions are as follows: 1) How does inequity in higher education access occur through public university CEPREs? - What are public university CEPREs? - How do public university CEPREs function? 2) What are the educational systematic factors that explain the ongoing presence of public university CEPREs? This research is a qualitative case study conducted locally in Peru, incorporating literature reviews and interviews. Interviews were conducted with a total of 40 participants, including current students of UNMSM, professors, officials of CEPRE UNMSM, and so on. The analytical framework adopted was based on the method used in Zhang & Bray's (2018) study on private tutoring in China. Their findings demonstrate that education equalization policies in Shanghai, China, have inadvertently exacerbated the concerns of middle-class and above parents who wish to maintain competitive advantages. This has led them to actively engage in private tutoring, ultimately offsetting the intended effects of equalization policies. The differentiation and tracking phenomena within China's private tutoring institutions reveal that high-income students are more likely to receive quality private tutoring and, furthermore, have a higher likelihood of entering elite schools. Following this approach, this paper analyzes Peru's university admissions preparation methods by ‘differentiation of access’ and ‘sorting mechanisms.’ This framework aligns closely with Lucas's (2001) Effectively Maintained Inequality (EMI) theory. The EMI theory argues that despite quantitative expansion in education, students with higher socioeconomic status continue to have an advantageous position in progressing to higher educational levels or entering universities through qualitative differentiation. However, Zhang & Bray (2018) provide an analytical framework illustrating how private tutoring can serve as a form of qualitative differentiation utilized by students with higher socioeconomic status. The research results are as follows. First, based on the analysis of ‘differentiation of access’, CEPRE UNMSM charges higher costs to students than any other university admission preparation method, and it was observed that students with higher socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to utilize the CEPRE. Additionally, a certain level of academic foundation is required to compete with other students within the CEPRE. Secondly, when analyzed through ‘sorting mechanisms’, the exclusive entrance system, known as ‘ingreso directo (direct admission)’, operated only by CEPREs, provides additional opportunities only to students with economic capital. Furthermore, comparing the operation of academies and public university CEPREs, the former focuses on providing a strong academic foundation, while the latter emphasizes practical problem-solving. Public university CEPREs that have been nominally operated to enhance the equity of higher education access can be seen as primarily a profit-seeking business. The reasons for the existence of public university CEPREs can be explained by low-quality public education, differences in the direction of national curriculum of secondary education and public university entrance exams, the lack of quality university supply for socioeconomically vulnerable groups, and financial issues in public universities. In addition, public university CEPREs’ own unique operational strategies interact with the social systemic factors, allowing it to thrive. Therefore, public university CEPREs arose from various education issues in Peru. Public university CEPREs, with their distinctive identity, can be understood in terms of equity in higher education access based on the EMI theory. Although higher education opportunities have quantitatively expanded in Peru, the emergence of PSE for university admissions exams was driven by an incomplete educational environment and structural issues. Among public university aspirants, those with socioeconomic capital use PSE as a form of qualitative differentiation, entering high-quality universities and perpetuating the inequities. First, public university CEPREs with significantly high economic and academic entry barriers and employing the direct admissions modality, were found to be un helpful in improving the equity of access to higher education for public university aspirants. This direct admissions system in which 10 to 30% of the total admission capacity is allocated for the internal exam-takers in CEPREs, admits top-performing students directly from the CEPREs to the university. Second, students belonging to higher socioeconomic strata effectively utilize CEPREs to gain an advantageous position when entering the university. Among public university aspirants, high- income students tend to enter into prominent fields of study, and those entering those fields tend to have higher university admission rates when preparing for exams at CEPRE rather than at the academies. In contrast, students with lower socioeconomic status tend to enter less-pursued fields of study, and those preparing for admission to those majors at CEPREs often fail to fill even the allocated quota for the direct admissions modality due to insufficient scores. Considering how the socioeconomic background students have since childhood influences the level of public education they receive, determines the need for or choice of PSE for university admission, and even impacts their eligibility for desired university admission, it is evident that educational and social inequity are reproduced based on socioeconomic status, and PSE for university admission solidifies this tendency. While public university CEPREs may have encourage the survival of PSE, it should be viewed not merely as an individual university's financial problem- solving strategy but rather as a problem within the overall education system. Students and parents facing various educational issues tend to seek PSE, and public universities have their own strategies to secure revenue. These two align together resulting in the persistence of public university CEPREs that exacerbate inequitable higher education access for students of different socioeconomic background. However, not only in Peru but in many developing countries, privatization policies in education are functioning as a means to drive the expansion of education, supplementing or even replacing public education based on the qualitative issues. In many cases, PSE serves as a temporary solution to the failure of public education. It is essential to evaluate whether the phenomenon of nominally expanding higher education access for low-income groups and improving the quality of education through educational privatization genuinely enhance the equity of higher education access. In doing so, it is crucial to consider the broader factors that enable it, rather than merely seeking ways to eradicate PSE itself. Keywords: Higher education access, Public university, Private supplementary education, Inequity, Equity, Peru, Education privatization Student Number: 2016-30454 국제사회에서 지속가능발전목표(SDGs) 등을 통해 형평성 있는 고등교육기회를 달성하기 위한 논의가 활발하다. 각 국가 차원에서 고등교육기회의 형평성 제고를 이행할 ‘의무’는 없으나 중남미 전역에 영향을 미친 코르도바 개혁을 바탕으로 페루 국립대는 특별히 요구 받는 사회적 기대를 가지며 대학 자체적으로도 그와 같은 역할에 대해 인지하고 있다. 고등교육 수요와 공급이 확대되며 페루 국립대는 엘리트 대학에서 벗어나 1960년대 이후 대중적 대학으로서의 정체성을 지니게 되었다. 그런데 페루 국립대는 1990년대 Centro Preuniversitario(이하 CEPRE)라는 대학입시 사교육 기관을 대학 내에 설립하면서, 학업적으로 준비된 학생들을 대학에 합격시키되 저소득층에게도 고등교육의 기회를 주는 것을 표면적 목적으로 하였다. 다만, 이 때 각 대학 지망생들이 CEPRE에 등록하여 수학하는 기간은 중/고등교육 중 그 어떤 학력으로도 인정되지 않는다. CEPRE는 국립대뿐 아니라 중상위권 이상의 사립대에 존재한다. 이는 1960년대부터 국립대를 중심으로 경쟁력 있는 대학들의 입시를 준비시켜주던 학원 개념의 ‘아카데미’를 모방한 것으로, CEPRE의 설립과 운영에 대한 법적 근거도 1983년에 마련되었다. 고등교육이 확장되며 대학에 진학하는 학생들의 사회경제적 배경 스펙트럼이 넓어졌고, 낮은 질의 공교육을 받은 학생들이 대학에서 요구하는 학업적 수준을 충족하지 못하자 자연스럽게 아카데미가 하나의 비즈니스로 생겨났던 것인데, 그 과정에서 특히 재정적 문제를 겪던 국립대가 법적 기반을 근거로 아카데미와 유사한 형태를 대학 내에 도입했던 것이다. 정부가 국립대로 하여금 CEPRE를 운영하고 그 곳으로부터 자체 수익을 창출해도 된다고 허가하는 것은 사실 전세계적인 신자유주의 혹은 교육민영화의 흐름에서 벗어나지 않는다. 즉, 국립대 CEPRE는 국가의 지원을 받는 고등교육기관 내에 신자유주의적 측면의 요소가 가미된 시스템이다. 한편, 국립대 CEPRE는 학생과 학부모 입장에서 볼 때 대학 입시 준비를 위해 취하는 사교육과 같은 형태로 기능한다. 그렇기 때문에 이 연구에서는 CEPRE를 ‘중등교육에서 고등교육으로 전환되는 시점에서의 극단적 형태의 사교육’으로 상정하고자 한다. 보통 사교육은 교육 불평등을 심화시키는 기제로 알려져 있는데 CEPRE는 그 어떤 아카데미보다도 높은 교육비를 책정한다. 이러한 상황적 배경을 바탕으로 본 논문은 페루 국립대 CEPRE라는 기관을 통해 고등교육 기회의 불평등이 어떻게 나타나는지를 산마르코스 국립대학(이하 UNMSM)을 사례로 살펴보았다. 특별히 개발도상국을 배경으로 중등교육에서 고등교육으로의 이행 과정에서 사교육의 불평등에 대한 영향력을 보는 연구가 부족하다는 점을 고려하였다. 본 연구의 목적은 개발도상국 고등교육기회의 불평등에 대한 양상을 대학입학의 과정에서 기능하는 사교육을 통해 이해하는 것이다. 연구 질문은 다음과 같다: 1) 페루 국립대 CEPRE를 통해 고등교육기회의 불평등은 어떻게 나타나는가? - 페루 국립대 CEPRE는 무엇인가? - 페루 국립대 CEPRE는 어떻게 기능하는가? 2) 국립대 CEPRE가 존속할 수 있는 교육 시스템적 요인은 무엇인가? 페루 현지에서 질적 사례연구로 문헌 연구와 면담을 병행하였으며, 면담은 UNMSM 재학생, 교수진, CEPRE 기관장 등 총 40명을 대상으로 진행하였다. 분석틀은 Zhang & Bray (2018)의 중국 사교육 관련 연구에서 사용한 방법을 취하였다. 이들의 연구는 중국 상하이의 교육 평등화 정책이 오히려 경쟁적 지위를 유지하고 싶은 중산층 이상 학부모들의 불안을 가중시켜서 그들이 사교육을 적극 이용하도록 만들었고, 결국 평등화 정책이 상쇄되었음을 주장한다. 중국의 사교육 기관 내 차별화 및 계열분리(tracking) 현상을 통해 고소득층 학생들이 양질의 사교육을 받거나, 더 나아가 엘리트 학교에 진학할 가능성이 높아진다는 것을 보여주고 있다. 이를 차용하여 본 논문은 페루의 대학입시 준비 방법을 접근방법의 차별화(Differentiation of access)와 분류 메커니즘(Sorting mechanisms)으로 구분해 분석하였다. 이 분석틀은 본 논문의 ‘논의’ 부분에서 적용할 Lucas(2001)의 Effectively Maintained Inequality(이하 EMI) 이론과 상당히 맞닿아 있다. EMI 이론은 교육의 양적 확대가 이루어진다고 할지라도 여전히 사회경제적 지위가 높은 학생들이 질적 차별화 방식을 사용해서 상위 교육단계로의 진급 혹은 대학 진학 시 유리한 위치에 있음을 주장한다. 그런데 Zhang & Bray (2018)는 사교육이 사회경제적 지위가 높은 학생들이 이용하는 일종의 질적 차별화 방식이 될 수 있음을 보여주는 전형적인 분석틀을 제공하는 것이다. 연구결과는 다음과 같다. 첫 번째, 접근방법의 차별화를 바탕으로 분석한 결과, 국립대 CEPRE는 그 어떤 타 대입 준비 방법보다도 높은 비용을 학생들에게 요구하며, 사회경제적 배경이 높은 학생들일수록 국립대 CEPRE를 많이 활용하는 것을 알 수 있었다. 또한 일정 수준의 학업적 기초가 형성되어 있어야 국립대 CEPRE에서 다른 학생들과 경쟁이 가능하다. 두 번째, 분류 메커니즘으로 분석했을 때 국립대 CEPRE에서만 운영하는 무시험 입학(ingreso directo)제도는 경제자본이 있는 학생들에 한하여 추가 응시기회를 얻도록 한다. 또한 아카데미와 국립대 CEPRE의 작동방식을 비교해 볼 때 전자는 기초부터 탄탄히 가르쳐주는 반면 후자는 실전 문제풀이 위주이다. 고등교육기회의 형평성을 제고하고자 하는 명목으로 운영되어온 국립대 CEPRE는 실질적으로 자체 수익을 확보하고자 하는 ‘비즈니스’에 그친다고 해석할 수 있다. 이러한 정체성을 지닌 국립대 CEPRE가 존속할 수 있는 이유를 거시적으로 살펴볼 때 낮은 질의 공교육, 국가교육과정과 국립대 입학시험 문제의 방향성 차이, 사회경제적 취약계층이 진학할 수 있는 양질의 대학 공급 부족, 그리고 국립대의 재정적 문제로 설명된다. 이러한 교육 시스템적, 사회적 환경에 더하여 CEPRE 자체적인 특수한 운영 전략들이 상호작용한 결과 국립대 CEPRE는 호황을 누릴 수 있는 것이다. 따라서 국립대 CEPRE는 페루를 둘러싼 여러 교육 문제에 기생하는 존재이다. 이러한 정체성을 지닌 국립대 CEPRE가 고등교육기회의 형평성 측면에서 어떻게 해석될 수 있는지 EMI 이론을 바탕으로 해석해보면 다음과 같다. 고등교육기회가 페루 내에서 양적으로 확대되어왔지만, 온전치 않은 교육환경과 구조적 문제들로 인해 대학입시 사교육이 형성되었다. 그리고 국립대 지망생들 안에서 사회경제적 자본을 가진 학생들이 대입 사교육을 일종의 질적 차별화 방식으로 사용하여 양질의 대학에 진학하며, 이로써 고등교육기회의 불평등이 잔존한다. 첫번째로, 상당히 높은 경제적 및 학업적 진입장벽이 있는 국립대 CEPRE는 무시험 입학이라는 입시 전형의 하나로 활용이 됨으로써 국립대 지망생들의 고등교육기회의 형평성 제고에 그다지 도움이 되는 방식이 아니라는 것을 확인하였다. CEPRE에서 자체 시험을 통해 최상위 성적 학생들을 무시험 입학으로 대학에 합격시키는데, 그것이 총 입학정원의 10-30%에 해당된다는 점으로 이를 설명할 수 있다. 두번째로, 사회경제적 지위가 높은 축에 속하는 학생들이 CEPRE를 유용하게 활용하여 대학 진학 시 유리한 위치를 점하는 것을 볼 수 있다. 국립대 지망생 중에서 고소득층이 인기학과에 진학하고, 인기학과에 진학한 학생들이 아카데미에서보다 CEPRE에서 입시를 준비할 때 대학 합격률이 더 높게 나타나는 경향이 있기 때문이다. 반대로 사회경제적 지위가 낮은 학생들은 상대적으로 비인기학과에 진학하는데, CEPRE에서 비인기학과 입학을 준비하는 학생들은 최저 점수 미달로 무시험 입학 전형에 할당한 정원조차 채우지 못하는 것이 확인되었다. 학생들이 어릴 적부터 지닌 사회경제적 배경이 그들이 경험하게 되는 공교육의 수준을 결정하고, 그것이 대입 사교육 필요 여부나 선택을 결정하며, 원하는 대학 진학 여부에까지 영향을 미친다는 것을 통해, 사회경제적 지위에 따라 교육 및 사회적 불평등이 재생산되고 대입 사교육이 그 과정을 공고화 시킴을 볼 수 있다. 페루 국립대가 생존을 위해 사교육을 조장하였지만 CEPRE는 단순히 개별 대학의 재정문제 해결 전략이 아니라 국가 전체적으로 나타나는 총체적 교육 시스템의 문제로 바라보아야 한다. 낮은 공교육의 질을 포함한 여러 문제를 직면한 학생과 학부모는 사교육을 모색하게 되고, 그에 국립대의 자체 수익 확보를 위한 전략이 만나 국립대 CEPRE의 존속을 가능케 하고 있고, 이에 사회경제적 배경의 차이가 더해져 고등교육기회의 불평등을 만들고 있다. 그런데 페루 뿐만 아니라 많은 개발도상국에서는 교육 민영화 정책이 교육의 확대를 견인하고 교육의 질적 문제를 보완, 심지어 대체하는 수단으로 작동하고 있다. 특히 사교육은 공교육의 실패에 대한 임시방편으로 작용하는 경우가 많다. 고등교육기회를 저소득층에 확장하고 교육의 질을 제고한다는 명목의 교육 민영화 현상이 과연 진정한 고등교육기회의 형평성을 제고하고 있는지에 대해서 검토해야 하며, 이 때 단순히 사교육을 근절시키는 방법을 모색하는 것이 아니라 그것을 가능하게 하는 큰 틀의 요인을 고려할 필요가 있다. 주제어: 고등교육기회, 국립대학, 사교육, 불평등, 형평성, 페루, 교육 민영화 학번: 2016-30454

The cost impact of federal legislation on higher education

Hunter, Bonnie Lee University of Minnesota 2002 해외박사(DDOD)

Although the prime mission of colleges and universities is education, it is obvious that the federal government also sees higher education as a prime way to address social problems. In order to use higher education in this way, the federal government has passed numerous pieces of legislation affecting higher education. Although in the early years the legislation came without major costs to higher education, this is no longer the case. In fact, many colleges and universities are quite concerned that the cost of legislation will decrease the monetary resources available for their prime mission, education; and that this decrease in resources will result in the diminishment of quality in the educational product offered. Consequently, there have been numerous calls for the federal government to stop unfunded mandates and reimburse colleges and universities for the cost of implementing the legislation. However, even though many complaints have been voiced about federal legislation squeezing already tight higher education budgets, few studies have been done to actually document these costs. There was a need, therefore, to determine the true costs of such legislation to higher education. There was also a need to develop a conceptual framework so that policy and decision makers could systematically assess the costs of these federal mandates. This study focused on developing a conceptual framework for cost collection at colleges and universities and on assessing the cost impact of federal legislation on a representative mid-sized private, four-year institution in the Midwest. Additionally, a complete list of federal legislation affecting higher education had to be compiled before costs could be collected. The outcomes of this cost impact study included the development of a complete legislative typology for federal legislation affecting higher education, including more than 200 laws; a cost model framework and worksheet for data collection; and actual cost data of federal legislation implementation at an institution of higher education. Specific cost data at the institution under study demonstrated that the cost impact of federal legislation to the institution was 6.5% of the institution's operating budget for the 2000–2001 fiscal year.

In a State of Access: Ohio Higher Education, 1945–1990

Baker, Jonathan T Miami University ProQuest Dissertations & Theses 2020 해외박사(DDOD)

In a State of Access is a historical study about the way public higher education in Ohio became both generally accessible to nearly every citizen while also offering elite undergraduate and graduate programs. This project grapples with the question of how national, state and regional factors–from the mid-1940s through the end of the 20th century–influenced the way Ohio's leaders viewed the purpose of public higher education and influenced whether Ohio's leaders chose to focus on making public higher education more selective or accessible. State leaders initially balked at the idea of funding public higher education. When they did decide to make the investment, ideological battles, economic stagnation and the state's budget deficit continually influenced how state leaders viewed the purpose of public higher education. As a result, state leaders never succeeded in building a system of public higher education that reflected a clearly defined, well-organized purpose. This dissertation is the first full-length study about contemporary public higher education in Ohio and one of the few case studies of any state's system of higher education. As the public and politicians at the state and national level pay more attention to the accessibility of higher education, and the role of a college degree in a globalized, service economy, a case study of Ohio helps us to better understand why public higher education is still struggling with problems over access.

The response of physical education department leaders to organizational restructuring mandated by Taiwan higher education reform (China)

Luo, Christine Ting-Yi University of Montana 2005 해외박사(DDOD)

Physical education, which plays a major role in determining the health and quality of life for students, plays a critical role in institutions of higher education. In Taiwan, Physical Education Departments have historically been a second-level administrative department under the Department of Student Affairs in institutions of higher education. Since 1994 higher education reform, most universities have moved the Physical Educational Departments to a first administrative level. Physical Education Departments face numerous challenges after the elevation of their administrative status to level one. This change in status has required substantial organizational improvements in order to fulfill the new goals for higher education. This research investigated the current status of higher education institutions Taiwanese Physical Education Departments in order to determine the degree of organizational improvement resulting from higher education reform. A survey was sent to 150 chairs of Physical Education Department in all public and private non-religions higher education institutions in Taiwan. There were 112 completed surveys received providing an effective response rate of 75%. The analyses of the data indicate that Physical Education Departments have reached a high level of compliance with the mandates and goals of Taiwanese higher educational reform. With few exceptions, the Physical Education Departments have met the expectations of higher education reform and may be characterized as having achieved approximately 98% of the goals directed to them by the MOE. Based upon the responses of the department chairs, this research found very few differences in organizational structure among Physical Education Departments were found. Therefore, the invariant organization structure of Physical Education Department nullified correlative analysis using demographic variables and/or Knowledge Management as predictive variables.