Investigating Inequitable Access to Higher Education in Developing Countries : A Case of Centro Preuniversitario, UNMSM in Peru

신민경 서울대학교 대학원 2024 국내박사

In the international arena, discussions are actively underway to achieve equitable access to higher education through initiatives such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). While there is no binding obligation at the national level to enhance the equity of higher education access, the Cordoba Reform, which had a widespread impact in the Latin American region, serves as the basis for specific societal expectations placed on public universities of Peru. Peruvian public universities are aware of their role in this regard. With the expansion of demand and supply in higher education, Peruvian public universities have transitioned from elite to popularized institutions since the 1960s. However, in the 1990s, public universities established Centro Preuniversitario (Preuniversity Center, hereafter ‘CEPRE’), a type of private supplementary education (PSE) institution to prepare applicants for their university entrance exams within their campuses, ostensibly with the goal of admitting academically prepared students to the university while providing more opportunity for higher education to low-income individuals. However, within this context, the period during which university aspirants enroll and study at CEPRE is not recognized for any level of secondary or higher education. CEPREs exist in both public and private universities that rank above a certain level. Modeled after ‘academies’ that had been preparing students for competitive university admissions exams since the 1960s, CEPREs also gained legal standing in 1983. As higher education expanded, students entering university exhibited a broader socio-economic spectrum, and those who had received lower-quality public education struggled to meet the academic standards required by universities. This led to the emergence of academies as businesses, mirroring the financial challenges faced by public universities, which, in turn, implemented a similar model within the university. The fact that the state permits each public university to operate a CEPRE and generate its own profits is not unrelated to the global trend of neoliberalism or education privatization. In other words, the public university CEPRE is a system with elements of neoliberalism within a state-supported higher education institution. Meanwhile, from the perspective of students and parents, public university CEPREs function in the same way as PSE taken to prepare for university entrance exams. Therefore, this study considers the CEPRE as an extreme form of PSE that exists at the point of transition from secondary education to higher education. While PSE is generally known to exacerbate educational inequity, CEPRE is notorious for charging higher tuition fees than any other academy. Against this backdrop, this dissertation examines how the inequity of higher education access opportunities is manifested through the case study of a CEPRE at the National University of San Marcos (UNMSM) in Peru. This research specifically addresses the lack of studies examining the impact of PSE in inequities during the transition from secondary to higher education in the context of developing countries. The purpose of this study is to understand the patterns of inequitable higher education access in developing countries through PSE during the university admissions process. The research questions are as follows: 1) How does inequity in higher education access occur through public university CEPREs? - What are public university CEPREs? - How do public university CEPREs function? 2) What are the educational systematic factors that explain the ongoing presence of public university CEPREs? This research is a qualitative case study conducted locally in Peru, incorporating literature reviews and interviews. Interviews were conducted with a total of 40 participants, including current students of UNMSM, professors, officials of CEPRE UNMSM, and so on. The analytical framework adopted was based on the method used in Zhang & Bray's (2018) study on private tutoring in China. Their findings demonstrate that education equalization policies in Shanghai, China, have inadvertently exacerbated the concerns of middle-class and above parents who wish to maintain competitive advantages. This has led them to actively engage in private tutoring, ultimately offsetting the intended effects of equalization policies. The differentiation and tracking phenomena within China's private tutoring institutions reveal that high-income students are more likely to receive quality private tutoring and, furthermore, have a higher likelihood of entering elite schools. Following this approach, this paper analyzes Peru's university admissions preparation methods by ‘differentiation of access’ and ‘sorting mechanisms.’ This framework aligns closely with Lucas's (2001) Effectively Maintained Inequality (EMI) theory. The EMI theory argues that despite quantitative expansion in education, students with higher socioeconomic status continue to have an advantageous position in progressing to higher educational levels or entering universities through qualitative differentiation. However, Zhang & Bray (2018) provide an analytical framework illustrating how private tutoring can serve as a form of qualitative differentiation utilized by students with higher socioeconomic status. The research results are as follows. First, based on the analysis of ‘differentiation of access’, CEPRE UNMSM charges higher costs to students than any other university admission preparation method, and it was observed that students with higher socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to utilize the CEPRE. Additionally, a certain level of academic foundation is required to compete with other students within the CEPRE. Secondly, when analyzed through ‘sorting mechanisms’, the exclusive entrance system, known as ‘ingreso directo (direct admission)’, operated only by CEPREs, provides additional opportunities only to students with economic capital. Furthermore, comparing the operation of academies and public university CEPREs, the former focuses on providing a strong academic foundation, while the latter emphasizes practical problem-solving. Public university CEPREs that have been nominally operated to enhance the equity of higher education access can be seen as primarily a profit-seeking business. The reasons for the existence of public university CEPREs can be explained by low-quality public education, differences in the direction of national curriculum of secondary education and public university entrance exams, the lack of quality university supply for socioeconomically vulnerable groups, and financial issues in public universities. In addition, public university CEPREs’ own unique operational strategies interact with the social systemic factors, allowing it to thrive. Therefore, public university CEPREs arose from various education issues in Peru. Public university CEPREs, with their distinctive identity, can be understood in terms of equity in higher education access based on the EMI theory. Although higher education opportunities have quantitatively expanded in Peru, the emergence of PSE for university admissions exams was driven by an incomplete educational environment and structural issues. Among public university aspirants, those with socioeconomic capital use PSE as a form of qualitative differentiation, entering high-quality universities and perpetuating the inequities. First, public university CEPREs with significantly high economic and academic entry barriers and employing the direct admissions modality, were found to be un helpful in improving the equity of access to higher education for public university aspirants. This direct admissions system in which 10 to 30% of the total admission capacity is allocated for the internal exam-takers in CEPREs, admits top-performing students directly from the CEPREs to the university. Second, students belonging to higher socioeconomic strata effectively utilize CEPREs to gain an advantageous position when entering the university. Among public university aspirants, high- income students tend to enter into prominent fields of study, and those entering those fields tend to have higher university admission rates when preparing for exams at CEPRE rather than at the academies. In contrast, students with lower socioeconomic status tend to enter less-pursued fields of study, and those preparing for admission to those majors at CEPREs often fail to fill even the allocated quota for the direct admissions modality due to insufficient scores. Considering how the socioeconomic background students have since childhood influences the level of public education they receive, determines the need for or choice of PSE for university admission, and even impacts their eligibility for desired university admission, it is evident that educational and social inequity are reproduced based on socioeconomic status, and PSE for university admission solidifies this tendency. While public university CEPREs may have encourage the survival of PSE, it should be viewed not merely as an individual university's financial problem- solving strategy but rather as a problem within the overall education system. Students and parents facing various educational issues tend to seek PSE, and public universities have their own strategies to secure revenue. These two align together resulting in the persistence of public university CEPREs that exacerbate inequitable higher education access for students of different socioeconomic background. However, not only in Peru but in many developing countries, privatization policies in education are functioning as a means to drive the expansion of education, supplementing or even replacing public education based on the qualitative issues. In many cases, PSE serves as a temporary solution to the failure of public education. It is essential to evaluate whether the phenomenon of nominally expanding higher education access for low-income groups and improving the quality of education through educational privatization genuinely enhance the equity of higher education access. In doing so, it is crucial to consider the broader factors that enable it, rather than merely seeking ways to eradicate PSE itself. Keywords: Higher education access, Public university, Private supplementary education, Inequity, Equity, Peru, Education privatization Student Number: 2016-30454 국제사회에서 지속가능발전목표(SDGs) 등을 통해 형평성 있는 고등교육기회를 달성하기 위한 논의가 활발하다. 각 국가 차원에서 고등교육기회의 형평성 제고를 이행할 ‘의무’는 없으나 중남미 전역에 영향을 미친 코르도바 개혁을 바탕으로 페루 국립대는 특별히 요구 받는 사회적 기대를 가지며 대학 자체적으로도 그와 같은 역할에 대해 인지하고 있다. 고등교육 수요와 공급이 확대되며 페루 국립대는 엘리트 대학에서 벗어나 1960년대 이후 대중적 대학으로서의 정체성을 지니게 되었다. 그런데 페루 국립대는 1990년대 Centro Preuniversitario(이하 CEPRE)라는 대학입시 사교육 기관을 대학 내에 설립하면서, 학업적으로 준비된 학생들을 대학에 합격시키되 저소득층에게도 고등교육의 기회를 주는 것을 표면적 목적으로 하였다. 다만, 이 때 각 대학 지망생들이 CEPRE에 등록하여 수학하는 기간은 중/고등교육 중 그 어떤 학력으로도 인정되지 않는다. CEPRE는 국립대뿐 아니라 중상위권 이상의 사립대에 존재한다. 이는 1960년대부터 국립대를 중심으로 경쟁력 있는 대학들의 입시를 준비시켜주던 학원 개념의 ‘아카데미’를 모방한 것으로, CEPRE의 설립과 운영에 대한 법적 근거도 1983년에 마련되었다. 고등교육이 확장되며 대학에 진학하는 학생들의 사회경제적 배경 스펙트럼이 넓어졌고, 낮은 질의 공교육을 받은 학생들이 대학에서 요구하는 학업적 수준을 충족하지 못하자 자연스럽게 아카데미가 하나의 비즈니스로 생겨났던 것인데, 그 과정에서 특히 재정적 문제를 겪던 국립대가 법적 기반을 근거로 아카데미와 유사한 형태를 대학 내에 도입했던 것이다. 정부가 국립대로 하여금 CEPRE를 운영하고 그 곳으로부터 자체 수익을 창출해도 된다고 허가하는 것은 사실 전세계적인 신자유주의 혹은 교육민영화의 흐름에서 벗어나지 않는다. 즉, 국립대 CEPRE는 국가의 지원을 받는 고등교육기관 내에 신자유주의적 측면의 요소가 가미된 시스템이다. 한편, 국립대 CEPRE는 학생과 학부모 입장에서 볼 때 대학 입시 준비를 위해 취하는 사교육과 같은 형태로 기능한다. 그렇기 때문에 이 연구에서는 CEPRE를 ‘중등교육에서 고등교육으로 전환되는 시점에서의 극단적 형태의 사교육’으로 상정하고자 한다. 보통 사교육은 교육 불평등을 심화시키는 기제로 알려져 있는데 CEPRE는 그 어떤 아카데미보다도 높은 교육비를 책정한다. 이러한 상황적 배경을 바탕으로 본 논문은 페루 국립대 CEPRE라는 기관을 통해 고등교육 기회의 불평등이 어떻게 나타나는지를 산마르코스 국립대학(이하 UNMSM)을 사례로 살펴보았다. 특별히 개발도상국을 배경으로 중등교육에서 고등교육으로의 이행 과정에서 사교육의 불평등에 대한 영향력을 보는 연구가 부족하다는 점을 고려하였다. 본 연구의 목적은 개발도상국 고등교육기회의 불평등에 대한 양상을 대학입학의 과정에서 기능하는 사교육을 통해 이해하는 것이다. 연구 질문은 다음과 같다: 1) 페루 국립대 CEPRE를 통해 고등교육기회의 불평등은 어떻게 나타나는가? - 페루 국립대 CEPRE는 무엇인가? - 페루 국립대 CEPRE는 어떻게 기능하는가? 2) 국립대 CEPRE가 존속할 수 있는 교육 시스템적 요인은 무엇인가? 페루 현지에서 질적 사례연구로 문헌 연구와 면담을 병행하였으며, 면담은 UNMSM 재학생, 교수진, CEPRE 기관장 등 총 40명을 대상으로 진행하였다. 분석틀은 Zhang & Bray (2018)의 중국 사교육 관련 연구에서 사용한 방법을 취하였다. 이들의 연구는 중국 상하이의 교육 평등화 정책이 오히려 경쟁적 지위를 유지하고 싶은 중산층 이상 학부모들의 불안을 가중시켜서 그들이 사교육을 적극 이용하도록 만들었고, 결국 평등화 정책이 상쇄되었음을 주장한다. 중국의 사교육 기관 내 차별화 및 계열분리(tracking) 현상을 통해 고소득층 학생들이 양질의 사교육을 받거나, 더 나아가 엘리트 학교에 진학할 가능성이 높아진다는 것을 보여주고 있다. 이를 차용하여 본 논문은 페루의 대학입시 준비 방법을 접근방법의 차별화(Differentiation of access)와 분류 메커니즘(Sorting mechanisms)으로 구분해 분석하였다. 이 분석틀은 본 논문의 ‘논의’ 부분에서 적용할 Lucas(2001)의 Effectively Maintained Inequality(이하 EMI) 이론과 상당히 맞닿아 있다. EMI 이론은 교육의 양적 확대가 이루어진다고 할지라도 여전히 사회경제적 지위가 높은 학생들이 질적 차별화 방식을 사용해서 상위 교육단계로의 진급 혹은 대학 진학 시 유리한 위치에 있음을 주장한다. 그런데 Zhang & Bray (2018)는 사교육이 사회경제적 지위가 높은 학생들이 이용하는 일종의 질적 차별화 방식이 될 수 있음을 보여주는 전형적인 분석틀을 제공하는 것이다. 연구결과는 다음과 같다. 첫 번째, 접근방법의 차별화를 바탕으로 분석한 결과, 국립대 CEPRE는 그 어떤 타 대입 준비 방법보다도 높은 비용을 학생들에게 요구하며, 사회경제적 배경이 높은 학생들일수록 국립대 CEPRE를 많이 활용하는 것을 알 수 있었다. 또한 일정 수준의 학업적 기초가 형성되어 있어야 국립대 CEPRE에서 다른 학생들과 경쟁이 가능하다. 두 번째, 분류 메커니즘으로 분석했을 때 국립대 CEPRE에서만 운영하는 무시험 입학(ingreso directo)제도는 경제자본이 있는 학생들에 한하여 추가 응시기회를 얻도록 한다. 또한 아카데미와 국립대 CEPRE의 작동방식을 비교해 볼 때 전자는 기초부터 탄탄히 가르쳐주는 반면 후자는 실전 문제풀이 위주이다. 고등교육기회의 형평성을 제고하고자 하는 명목으로 운영되어온 국립대 CEPRE는 실질적으로 자체 수익을 확보하고자 하는 ‘비즈니스’에 그친다고 해석할 수 있다. 이러한 정체성을 지닌 국립대 CEPRE가 존속할 수 있는 이유를 거시적으로 살펴볼 때 낮은 질의 공교육, 국가교육과정과 국립대 입학시험 문제의 방향성 차이, 사회경제적 취약계층이 진학할 수 있는 양질의 대학 공급 부족, 그리고 국립대의 재정적 문제로 설명된다. 이러한 교육 시스템적, 사회적 환경에 더하여 CEPRE 자체적인 특수한 운영 전략들이 상호작용한 결과 국립대 CEPRE는 호황을 누릴 수 있는 것이다. 따라서 국립대 CEPRE는 페루를 둘러싼 여러 교육 문제에 기생하는 존재이다. 이러한 정체성을 지닌 국립대 CEPRE가 고등교육기회의 형평성 측면에서 어떻게 해석될 수 있는지 EMI 이론을 바탕으로 해석해보면 다음과 같다. 고등교육기회가 페루 내에서 양적으로 확대되어왔지만, 온전치 않은 교육환경과 구조적 문제들로 인해 대학입시 사교육이 형성되었다. 그리고 국립대 지망생들 안에서 사회경제적 자본을 가진 학생들이 대입 사교육을 일종의 질적 차별화 방식으로 사용하여 양질의 대학에 진학하며, 이로써 고등교육기회의 불평등이 잔존한다. 첫번째로, 상당히 높은 경제적 및 학업적 진입장벽이 있는 국립대 CEPRE는 무시험 입학이라는 입시 전형의 하나로 활용이 됨으로써 국립대 지망생들의 고등교육기회의 형평성 제고에 그다지 도움이 되는 방식이 아니라는 것을 확인하였다. CEPRE에서 자체 시험을 통해 최상위 성적 학생들을 무시험 입학으로 대학에 합격시키는데, 그것이 총 입학정원의 10-30%에 해당된다는 점으로 이를 설명할 수 있다. 두번째로, 사회경제적 지위가 높은 축에 속하는 학생들이 CEPRE를 유용하게 활용하여 대학 진학 시 유리한 위치를 점하는 것을 볼 수 있다. 국립대 지망생 중에서 고소득층이 인기학과에 진학하고, 인기학과에 진학한 학생들이 아카데미에서보다 CEPRE에서 입시를 준비할 때 대학 합격률이 더 높게 나타나는 경향이 있기 때문이다. 반대로 사회경제적 지위가 낮은 학생들은 상대적으로 비인기학과에 진학하는데, CEPRE에서 비인기학과 입학을 준비하는 학생들은 최저 점수 미달로 무시험 입학 전형에 할당한 정원조차 채우지 못하는 것이 확인되었다. 학생들이 어릴 적부터 지닌 사회경제적 배경이 그들이 경험하게 되는 공교육의 수준을 결정하고, 그것이 대입 사교육 필요 여부나 선택을 결정하며, 원하는 대학 진학 여부에까지 영향을 미친다는 것을 통해, 사회경제적 지위에 따라 교육 및 사회적 불평등이 재생산되고 대입 사교육이 그 과정을 공고화 시킴을 볼 수 있다. 페루 국립대가 생존을 위해 사교육을 조장하였지만 CEPRE는 단순히 개별 대학의 재정문제 해결 전략이 아니라 국가 전체적으로 나타나는 총체적 교육 시스템의 문제로 바라보아야 한다. 낮은 공교육의 질을 포함한 여러 문제를 직면한 학생과 학부모는 사교육을 모색하게 되고, 그에 국립대의 자체 수익 확보를 위한 전략이 만나 국립대 CEPRE의 존속을 가능케 하고 있고, 이에 사회경제적 배경의 차이가 더해져 고등교육기회의 불평등을 만들고 있다. 그런데 페루 뿐만 아니라 많은 개발도상국에서는 교육 민영화 정책이 교육의 확대를 견인하고 교육의 질적 문제를 보완, 심지어 대체하는 수단으로 작동하고 있다. 특히 사교육은 공교육의 실패에 대한 임시방편으로 작용하는 경우가 많다. 고등교육기회를 저소득층에 확장하고 교육의 질을 제고한다는 명목의 교육 민영화 현상이 과연 진정한 고등교육기회의 형평성을 제고하고 있는지에 대해서 검토해야 하며, 이 때 단순히 사교육을 근절시키는 방법을 모색하는 것이 아니라 그것을 가능하게 하는 큰 틀의 요인을 고려할 필요가 있다. 주제어: 고등교육기회, 국립대학, 사교육, 불평등, 형평성, 페루, 교육 민영화 학번: 2016-30454

Exploring adult learners' experiences transitioning to higher education

Karmelita, Courtney E The Pennsylvania State University ProQuest Dissert 2016 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

Research Topic With increasing adult learner enrollments in colleges and universities, adult learners more than ever require supports and services to help them successfully transition into student life. Transition programs have gained popularity for this reason. These programs are intended to help adult learners enroll in postsecondary education (Alamprese, 2005). The state of the literature on these programs demonstrates a need for more research about the outcomes associated with participation. Previous research on adult learner participation in transition programs is limited in its scope and depth (Valentine, Hirschy, Bremer, Novillo, Castellano, & Banister, 2009). To add to the literature, this study is designed to capture and explore the stories of adult learners enrolled in a transition program to examine their experiences and perceptions. When researching adult learner transition to higher education, I came across numerous studies reporting the challenges and barriers that hinder adult learner success. I also found that the challenges and barriers discussed in recent literature are the same as those described over three decades ago by Patricia Cross (1981). Therefore, this research also aims to explore to what extent these barrier types identified in Cross's (1981) survey research adequately reflect the experiences of adult learners entering higher education today and to provide an updated account of the obstacles that adult learners face. Theoretical Framework and Method This study is a narrative inquiry shaped by the theoretical framework of Schlossberg's Transition Theory (Anderson, Schlossberg, & Goodman, 2012) and Cross's (1991) categories of adult learner barriers. For data analysis, I used the hermeneutic approach as described by Patterson and Williams (2002). I followed this approach to analyze each participant's narrative. I also engaged in cross-case narrative analysis, determining the similarities and differences between the participants' narratives. Findings The findings suggest that the connections the participants formed during enrollment in "Transitions Prep" attributed to an overall positive experience for all. The narratives of this study also indicate that the participants' perspectives of the transition to higher education changed through participation in "Transitions Prep." Although one participated reported a loss of confidence in her ability to be successful in higher education, the majority of the participants described themselves as having gained confidence. Additionally, the findings of this study imply that adult learners may face challenges not fully addressed by Cross's (1991) account of adult learner barriers to higher education. Lastly, I found that the stages to self-actualization from Maslow's (1943) Hierarchy of Needs explain the participant motivations more precisely than the theories used to inform the theoretical framework of this study. Recommendations Based on the findings, I recommend that research on the outcomes of participation in a transition program be conducted. I also recommend that Schlossberg's Transition Theory and Cross's (1991) categorizations of student barriers be reconceptualized to give more emphasis on the influence of identity and be reconsidered within the current social context. Additionally, I encourage researchers to contemplate how elements of self-actualization may help to explain adult learner motivations for entering higher education. Furthermore, I suggest additional research to uncover the true impact of funding on transition program development and determine appropriate requirements for program design. For future practice, I suggest that universities and colleges implement research-based supports, including transition programs, to aid adult learners as they attempt to earn postsecondary degrees. In addition, I suggest that higher education institutions be mindful of how aging poses physical limitations for adult learners and consider how to best provide appropriate accommodations for aging adult students.

Executive development for higher education: A case study of the Wharton-IRHE Executive Education Program

Koerwer, Venard Scott University of Pennsylvania 2001 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

Market forces have changed the landscape of higher education from an insular industry focused on academic pursuits into a competitive environment requiring a market oriented, politically savvy mindset. In response to the market challenges, colleges and universities are attempting to manage themselves better, to become more market-driven (Day, 1990), and to redefine their missions so that they continue to remain relevant to a frenetic global marketplace—a marketplace that breeds competitors as a signal of a healthy economic outlook. Consequently, institutions of higher education need to understand the emerging competitive marketplace and to develop sound leadership practices and evolved management tools. The issue, then, of how the leadership of institutions of higher education is prepared for these challenges is of critical importance. In fact, the manner in which these institutional leaders practice good management and decision-making has become a matter of survival for colleges and universities. This dissertation is an exploration of some of the problems facing institutions of higher education. The pathway of problems leads to a vehicle created to address the need for better management practice and the creation of a market oriented, politically savvy mindset among the leadership of these institutions. The vehicle studied is the Wharton-IRHE Executive Education for Higher Education Program (Wharton-IRHE), a “just-in-time-educational” program for higher education institutional teams to explore these challenges. The Wharton-IRHE Program is particularly relevant for study because it comes at a time of great need in American higher education, and offers a unique solution—a model of educational development that caters to the needs of an institutional team working on the challenges of the institution, with individual and group development as a residual benefit. I evaluated this program using data from multiple sources. I explored its educational design in interviews with program faculty. I reviewed program evaluations completed by the program participants. These served as a guide in interviewing representatives from participating institutions regarding the impact the program had for them as an institution, as a group or team in attendance, and as individuals. The results I found were mixed, but largely positive. In summary, the program left both individuals and institutions asking for more, and in some cases, the institutions began to explore options for continuing the learning environment. This dissertation is a case study of the Wharton-IRHE Program as a vehicle for leadership development and institutional advancement for higher educational institutions.

Improving Mentoring in Higher Education

Andersen, Camey Lei ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Brigham Young Univ 2020 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

As universities and institutions of higher education seek to improve retention, persistence, well-being, and overall college experience satisfaction for their students, there is an increased emphasis on mentoring in higher education. Improving mentoring in higher education--the specific tools, training, and practices that develop effective mentors--remains an often-elusive goal for college administrators and university mentoring programs and in research. This research examined available research on effective mentoring and provided recommendations for how to create successful mentors and mentoring programs in higher education.This dissertation is a three-article format presentation of information about mentoring in higher education. The first article is a literature review of mentoring and higher education literature analyzing what makes an effective mentor and implications for practice. The review of 34 articles examined themes of impact of mentoring, role of mentor, and mentoring programs, as well as implications for practice for each theme. The review showed that more research is needed on mentoring and higher education, mentor training, and the perspective of mentors. The second article investigated mentoring in online learning environments. The survey research study analyzed responses from 143 online mentors from around the world in a global higher education initiative. Four mentoring domains were used for analysis. Online mentors reported they were most effective at providing emotional and psychological support for students. Study results showed mentor support for individual students outside the virtual classroom, strategies for student goal setting, characteristics of online role modeling, and mentor confidence in technology skills. The study also contributed findings to the literature about online mentoring benefits for nontraditional students, technology challenges, and online mentoring role adoption. The third article examined ongoing mentoring training. The qualitative study analyzed interview responses from 20 international in-person mentors in a global higher education initiative to discover how ongoing training affects mentors' abilities to assist higher education students in achieving their educational goals. Study results showed the benefits from ongoing mentoring training, the importance of volunteer mentoring needs in ongoing mentoring training, and the effects of mentoring training creativity. The study also showed that ongoing training positively impacts mentors, volunteers may need more training, and that ongoing training advanced effective mentoring practices.Successful mentoring can make a meaningful difference in students' lives. This research showed the impact of mentoring and its potential benefits in in-person and online learning environments. This research also showed the significance of effective mentoring programs and ongoing mentor training in mentoring.

Essays on the Economics of Higher Education

Solis Vivallos, Alex Ignacio University of California, Berkeley 2012 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

I describe and analyze market failures in the education market: How unequal access to credit markets prevents able students to invest in human capital; and the existence of externalities from education. In the first and second chapters I study how access to credit markets explains the educational attainment gap by family income, a very well documented empirical regularity existing in most countries. In the third chapter I present evidence on the causal effect of education on political participation, one of the most documented education externality. Does limited access to credit explain some of the gap in schooling attainment between children of richer and poorer families? The first chapter "Credit Access and College Enrollment" presents new evidence on this important question using data from two loan programs for college students in Chile. Both programs offer loans to students who score above a threshold on the national college admission test, providing the basis for a regression discontinuity evaluation design. One key element in the analysis is the use of individual level data from almost the universe of students graduating from high school with full information about their enrollment situation. I find that students who score just above the cutoff, consequently having access to credit markets, have nearly 20 percentage points higher enrollment than students who score just below the cutoff, representing a 100% increase in enrollment rate. More importantly, access to the loan program effectively eliminates the family-income gradient in enrollment among students with similar test scores. In the second chapter "Credit Access and College Persistence", using the identification strategy presented in chapter 1, along with individual data on enrollment decisions for 3 consecutive years, I estimate the causal effect of credit markets access on persistence in college and the probability of dropout from college. Contrary to the evidence shown in the US, access to loans leads to higher enrollment in the second and third years of college, and lower dropout rates. Moreover, I find that among students with access to credit market, there is no difference in persistence or dropout explained by family income, whereas among students without access to credit the gap is strong and significant. Additionally, this chapter presents evidence on biases when the analysis uses information conditional on enrolled students. In general enrolled students without financial aid or credit access tend to be richer than those who receive aid. These two chapters together suggest that differential access to credit is an important factor behind the intergenerational transmission of education and income. Finally, in the third chapter, "Does Higher Education Cause Political Participation?" I point to another market failure: externalities caused by education. The fact that education causes more and better civic participation is a commonly accepted belief among political scientists, but the evidence rests only on a strong and positive correlation between both variables. Recently however, some papers have suggested that the relationship is not causal. In this chapter I use the eligibility criteria for a loan program in Chile explained in chapter 1, which produces an exogenous variation on higher education, to test the causal effect of higher education on voter registration and affiliation with political parties. I also use the discontinuity of higher education to explore different channels that have been mentioned in the literature as mechanisms underlying the relation. I instrument higher education, college education and years of education to test the hypothesis that higher cognitive skills cause political participation. I also construct measures of the network quality (proportion of students registered to vote, showing interest in history, having higher abilities or knowledge of history and language), to test the social network hypothesis, that exposure to better peers through education implies higher participation rates. All the channels explored in the paper indicate that the relation between higher education and political participation is a spurious correlation.

A conceptual framework for understanding consumer protection standards in the state higher education regulations in the Southern Region

Parker, Stephen Donald The American University 2003 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

Over the years at postsecondary institutions nationwide, there have been numerous incidents of educational impropriety and malpractice involving fraud, deception, or a lack of proper communication to students. A majority of these problems are associated with the operations and practices of the postsecondary institutions themselves, particularly within the proprietary sector of higher education. These deceptive practices cheat consumers of their personal investments of time and money, and defraud the federal and state governments that support education with billions of dollars in student financial aid. It generally falls to the states to ensure that consumers of higher education have adequate protection, preservation of rights, and when applicable, restitution for damages. All 50 states have a process for assessing and evaluating the institutions in their state and the majority has taken steps to strengthen their licensing procedures, approval requirements, and enforcement practices to fulfill the expectations inherent in their role of higher education oversight. The purpose of this study is to analyze and compare the state regulations relative to consumer protection in higher education in the 11 states that comprise the Southern Region of the United States. This study found 88 different state standard related to student consumer protection in higher education. These standards were grouped into one of four categories based upon their intent to address practices related to (1) regulatory procedures; (2) institutional policies; (3) performance standards; or (4) academic quality standards. The data collected reveals there to be a great deal of variance and diversity in the role and functioning of the states in the provision of consumer protection both among the states as well as within each state as it pertains to the oversight of public and nonpublic institutions. Consequently, based on the regulations that have been promulgated by the states there is some variation in the effectiveness of the protection provided to consumers of higher education and some states are more comprehensive than others in providing adequate consumer protection in higher education.

The Virginia Community College System Middle College: Connecting high school dropouts to higher education

Dietter, Robyn Beck University of Virginia 2006 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

In an effort to impart success to Virginia's high school dropouts and deal with the challenges of GED-holders' entry to and successful completion of college, a new initiative undertaken in the Commonwealth of Virginia is the Virginia Community College System (VCCS) Middle College. Accepting only students who are confirmed high school dropouts and the purposeful promotion of higher education for its students differentiates the VCCS Middle College from other dropout recovery programs and GED preparation courses. The purpose of this research was to determine whether students who matriculated into the VCCS Middle College in the fall semester of 2005 increased their awareness of higher education and their intent to pursue higher education during their first semester of enrollment. Secondly, the extent to which demographic variables, career and educational aspirations, and Middle College experience contributed to the variability in the degree to which Middle College students increased their awareness of higher education and their intent to enroll in college were examined. Pretest and posttest survey instruments were employed to gather the data needed to answer the research questions. A statistically significant increase in higher education awareness scores occurred from pretest to posttest. Students' plans to attend college also were found to significantly increase from pretest to posttest. Demographic variables, career and educational aspirations, and Middle College experience were not found to be significantly related to increases in students' higher education awareness or their plans to pursue higher education. Overall, the results of this study suggested that the Middle College program positively affects high school dropouts' attainment of higher education awareness and their intent to enroll in college. Furthermore, the research indicated that Middle College students' are mainly satisfied with the Middle College program and maintain optimistic attitudes throughout the semester toward pursuing additional education after a GED is earned.

The Best of Intentions : Meritocratic Selection to Higher Education and Development of Shadow Education in Korea

이기봉 Pennsylvania State University 2003 해외박사

The dissertation examined the development of shadow education in Korea. This development offers a number of ways to test theoretical ideas about the effects of meritocratic selection to higher education, where some places in higher education are tightly connected to the labor market. Shadow education is defined as emerging educational phenomena of large scale, structured, and supervised outside-school learning activities in the form of tutoring, proprietary cram schools, review sessions, correspondence courses, and related practices that are purchased by parents with the express intention of helping their children's formal school achievements. As such, the origins and growth in shadow education have clear theoretical and policy implications. The potential ability of shadow education to reproduce social inequality adds to our understanding of how education overall is socially reproductive. And the degree to which shadow education works against state developed meritocratic systems can present a problem for the development of educational transitions. The dissertation conducted three related studies of different aspects of shadow education in Korea each employing a different data set. Study I examined the degree to which family background was associated with the prestige rankings of universities, even though the system holds universal opportunities and relatively equal conditions of secondary schooling and vastly expanded opportunities for higher education. The results from Study I showed that high SES of the family is positively related with any measure of college prestige or status hierarchies. More prestigious institutions have higher proportions of higher SES students among their enrolled cohorts of students. Meaning that the higher SES of the family the greater the students' odds of enrollment in prestigious, selective, high ranking universities. The question of Study II is, then, to what degree is the use of shadow education associated with the SES of the family and related family background characteristics? To examine this question, the study raises six hypotheses related to SES of the family, gender, students' living locations, and the grade, which stem from past research on shadow education use in Korea. Study II found that Korean students' participation in shadow education is widely prevalent and institutionalized. Shadow education is also certainly related with family SES and related family backgrounds and thus, can be considered as a structured, manifested, and well-arranged form of the Korean family's involvement to this highly legitimated meritocratic educational selection process to help their children's academic achievements. The questions of Study III were: why does shadow education expand, especially under the mass system of higher education and universal secondary schooling? A close examination of the macro origins and causes of shadow education growth in Korea suggests that the conventional functional and competition theorist arguments in configuration of the origins of shadow education did not provide much explanation of which attributes of educational and broader economic and social forces boost shadow education over time. Rather, the macro results of Study III fit a neo-institutionalist perspective about the origins of shadow education. Shadow education expands with a changing system of mass public elementary and secondary education that has gotten more equal in terms of resources over time. It also grows in relationship to an expanded system of higher education-in a relatively short time in Korea, shadow education has become taken for granted to all participants of formal schooling. As such, shadow education grows as an educational preparation within the school system for everyone. Families must use it, as all other families are using it; shadow education becomes part of the expectations of parents to provide as much support for their children's educational success as possible. Teachers know this is happening on the outside so they may assume this and change their lesson pace or teaching methods in knowing that nearly all of their students will receive additional instruction after class. Students come to assume that extensive shadow education is part of their daily routine of going to school. In conclusion, the development of shadow education is, in one sense, a manifest channel of educational inequality and social reproduction veiled behind the formal meritocratic selection process. In another sense, however, it suggests some institutional theorist perspectives on modem formal schooling. As mass public elementary and secondary education has been fully expanded, accordingly higher education has become increasingly a part of institutionalized schooling-taken for granted by all participants of formal schooling. As such shadow education also becomes part of that normative package and grows as a normal part of educational preparation within the school system for just about everyone who values meritocratic achievements.

The cost impact of federal legislation on higher education

Hunter, Bonnie Lee University of Minnesota 2002 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

Although the prime mission of colleges and universities is education, it is obvious that the federal government also sees higher education as a prime way to address social problems. In order to use higher education in this way, the federal government has passed numerous pieces of legislation affecting higher education. Although in the early years the legislation came without major costs to higher education, this is no longer the case. In fact, many colleges and universities are quite concerned that the cost of legislation will decrease the monetary resources available for their prime mission, education; and that this decrease in resources will result in the diminishment of quality in the educational product offered. Consequently, there have been numerous calls for the federal government to stop unfunded mandates and reimburse colleges and universities for the cost of implementing the legislation. However, even though many complaints have been voiced about federal legislation squeezing already tight higher education budgets, few studies have been done to actually document these costs. There was a need, therefore, to determine the true costs of such legislation to higher education. There was also a need to develop a conceptual framework so that policy and decision makers could systematically assess the costs of these federal mandates. This study focused on developing a conceptual framework for cost collection at colleges and universities and on assessing the cost impact of federal legislation on a representative mid-sized private, four-year institution in the Midwest. Additionally, a complete list of federal legislation affecting higher education had to be compiled before costs could be collected. The outcomes of this cost impact study included the development of a complete legislative typology for federal legislation affecting higher education, including more than 200 laws; a cost model framework and worksheet for data collection; and actual cost data of federal legislation implementation at an institution of higher education. Specific cost data at the institution under study demonstrated that the cost impact of federal legislation to the institution was 6.5% of the institution's operating budget for the 2000–2001 fiscal year.

Characteristics of teacher educators' instructional practices, research activities and teaching efficacy: A comparison of higher education faculty from NSOPF:93

Goubeaud, Karleen Rene Indiana University of Pennsylvania 2002 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

The issue of quality pre-service teacher training is a high priority of educators, higher education administrators, and policymakers. Teacher education faculty are critical to the quality of pre-service programs and the success of reform efforts currently underway in many teacher education programs. Current education reforms recommend that teacher educators model recommended instructional strategies in their pre-service teacher courses. However, there is a lack of information available about teacher education faculty's characteristics and educational practices within higher education institutions. To address the lack of previous research on teacher educators at the national level, this large-scale descriptive study examined the professional activities of teacher education faculty in the U.S. and compared them to other education faculty and faculty in academic fields outside education. This study utilized the National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93), a nationally representative sample of higher education faculty sponsored by the NCES and the U.S. Department of Education. The results of the analysis indicated that teacher educators comprise a distinct group among higher education faculty and possess a unique set of characteristics in terms of their demographics, educational background, employment status, workload, instructional practices, and research activities. This study provides a descriptive profile of teacher educators for each of these characteristics. Teacher educators used traditional teaching strategies such as lecture less and strategies requiring student involvement such as group work more than faculty of other academic disciplines. Teacher educators produced less research than other education faculty, with the exception of producing a similar number of presentations. In terms of employment status, teacher educators were more likely to hold lower academic ranks in untenured or part-time positions. The majority of teacher education faculty were white females. Teacher educators' unique characteristics have important policy implications for higher education institutions. Accommodations in higher education reward structures are recommended for teacher educators who devote a large proportion of their time to teaching. Other issues important to teacher education faculty based on this study's findings include part-time employment, research requirements for promotion and tenure, and funding of faculty professional development training especially in the area of technology integration.